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Chapter 1
The Foundations of MI Theory
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It is of the utmost importance that we recognize and nurture all of the varied human intelligences, and all of the combinations of intelligences. We are all so different largely because we all have different combinations of intelligences. If we recognize this, I think we will have at least a better chance of dealing appropriately with the many problems that we face in the world.
—Howard Gardner
In 1904, the minister of public instruction in Paris asked the French psychologist Alfred Binet and a group of colleagues to develop a means of determining which primary grade students were "at risk" for failure so these students could receive remedial attention. Out of their efforts came the first intelligence tests. Imported to the United States several years later, intelligence testing became widespread, as did the notion that there was something called "intelligence" that could be objectively measured and reduced to a single number or "IQ" score.
Almost 80 years after the first intelligence tests were developed, Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner challenged this commonly held belief. Saying that our culture had defined intelligence too narrowly, he proposed in the book Frames of Mind (Gardner, 1983) the existence of at least seven basic intelligences. More recently, he has added an eighth and discussed the possibility of a ninth (Gardner, 1999). In his theory of multiple intelligences (MI theory), Gardner sought to broaden the scope of human potential beyond the confines of the IQ score. He seriously questioned the validity of determining intelligence through the practice of taking individuals out of their natural learning environment and asking them to do isolated tasks they'd never done before—and probably would never choose to do again. Instead, Gardner suggested that intelligence has more to do with the capacity for (1) solving problems and (2) fashioning products in culturally supported, context-rich, and naturalistic settings.
The Eight Intelligences
Once this broader and more pragmatic perspective was taken, the concept of intelligence began to lose its mystique as people began to see it working in people's lives in a variety of ways. Gardner provided a means of mapping the broad range of abilities that humans possess by grouping their capabilities into the following eight comprehensive "intelligences":
Linguistic intelligence: The capacity to use words effectively, whether orally (e.g., as a storyteller, orator, or politician) or in writing (e.g., as a poet, playwright, editor, or journalist). This intelligence includes the ability to manipulate the syntax or structure of language, the phonology or sounds of language, the semantics or meanings of language, and the pragmatic dimensions or practical uses of language. Some of these uses include rhetoric (using language to convince others to take a specific course of action), mnemonics (using language to remember information), explanation (using language to inform), and metalanguage (using language to discuss language).
Logical-mathematical intelligence: The capacity to use numbers effectively (e.g., as a mathematician, tax accountant, or statistician) and to reason well (e.g., as a scientist, computer programmer, or logician). This intelligence includes sensitivity to logical patterns and relationships, statements and propositions (if-then, cause-effect), functions, and other related abstractions. The kinds of processes used in the service of logical-mathematical intelligence include categorization, classification, inference, generalization, calculation, and hypothesis testing.
Spatial intelligence: The ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately (e.g., as a surveyor or cartographer) and to perform transformations upon those perceptions (e.g., as an interior decorator, architect, artist, or inventor). This intelligence involves sensitivity to color, line, shape, form, space, and the relationships that exist between these elements. It includes the capacity to visualize, to graphically represent visual or spatial ideas, and to orient oneself appropriately in a spatial matrix.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: Expertise in using one's whole body to express ideas and feelings (e.g., as an actor, a mime, an athlete, or a dancer) and facility in using one's hands to produce or transform things (e.g., as a craftsperson, sculptor, mechanic, or surgeon). This intelligence includes specific physical skills such as coordination, balance, dexterity, strength, flexibility, and speed, as well as proprioceptive, tactile, and haptic capacities.
Musical intelligence: The capacity to perceive (e.g., as a music aficionado), transform (e.g., as a composer), express (e.g., as a performer), and discriminate among (e.g., as a music critic) musical forms. This intelligence includes sensitivity to the rhythm, pitch or melody, and timbre or tone color of a musical piece. One can have a figural or "top-down" understanding of music (global, intuitive), a formal or "bottom-up" understanding (analytic, technical), or both.
Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to perceive and distinguish among the moods, intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people. This can include sensitivity to facial expressions, voice, and gestures; the capacity for discriminating among many different kinds of interpersonal cues; and the ability to respond effectively to those cues in some pragmatic way (e.g., by influencing a group of people to follow a certain line of action).
Intrapersonal intelligence: Self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively on the basis of that knowledge. This intelligence includes having an accurate picture of oneself (one's strengths and limitations); awareness of one's inner moods, intentions, motivations, temperaments, and desires; and the capacity for self-discipline, self-understanding, and self-esteem.
Naturalist intelligence: Expertise in the recognition and classification of the numerous species—the flora and fauna—of an individual's environment. This also includes sensitivity to other natural phenomena (e.g., cloud formations and mountains) and, in the case of those growing up in an urban environment, the capacity to discriminate among inanimate objects such as cars, sneakers, and smartphones.
Gardner's terms are useful within an academic context. However, because this book focuses on practical applications of MI theory, I'm choosing to use terminology that more clearly and directly reflects the essential nature of each intelligence, as follows:
- Linguistic Intelligence → Word Smart
- Logical-Mathematical Intelligence → Number/Logic Smart
- Spatial Intelligence → Picture Smart
- Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence → Body Smart
- Musical Intelligence → Music Smart
- Interpersonal Intelligence → People Smart
- Intrapersonal Intelligence → Self Smart
- Naturalist Intelligence → Nature Smart
I feel that these terms make MI theory more accessible to students, their families, and the community at large. They also make it easier for educators to envision practical applications of the theory in the classroom. Educators are free, of course, to continue using Gardner's nomenclature as they wish, and I myself will at times also be using those terms when they seem to add clarity to the text.
The Theoretical Basis for MI Theory
Many people wonder why Howard Gardner insisted on referring to the eight categories as intelligences rather than talents or aptitudes. Gardner realized that people are used to hearing expressions like "He's not very intelligent, but he has a wonderful aptitude for music"; thus, he was quite conscious of his use of the word intelligence to describe each category. "I'm deliberately being somewhat provocative," he once said. "If I'd said that there are seven kinds of competencies, people would yawn and say ‘Yeah, yeah.’ But by calling them ‘intelligences,’ I'm saying that we've tended to put on a pedestal one variety called intelligence, and there's actually a plurality of them, and some are things we've never thought about as being ‘intelligence’ at all" (quoted in Weinreich-Haste, 1985, p. 48).
To provide a sound theoretical foundation for his claims, Gardner set up the following eight basic criteria that each intelligence had to meet to be considered a full-fledged intelligence and not simply a talent, skill, or aptitude:
- Potential isolation by brain damage
- The existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals
- A distinctive developmental history and a definable set of expert "end state" performances
- An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility
- Support from psychometric findings
- Support from experimental psychological tasks
- An identifiable core operation or set of operations
- Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system
Potential Isolation by Brain Damage
At the Boston Veterans Administration, Gardner worked with individuals who had suffered accidents or illnesses that affected specific areas of the brain. In several cases, brain lesions appeared to have selectively impaired one intelligence while leaving all the other intelligences intact. For example, a person with a lesion in Broca's area (in the left frontal lobe) might have a substantial portion of his Word Smart damaged and thus experience great difficulty speaking, reading, or writing, but still be able to sing, do math, dance, reflect on feelings, and relate to others. A person with a lesion in the temporal lobe of the right hemisphere might have Music Smart capacities selectively impaired, while frontal lobe lesions might primarily affect the personal intelligences (Self Smart and People Smart).
Gardner, then, is arguing for the existence of eight relatively autonomous brain systems—a more sophisticated and updated version of the "right brain/left brain" model of learning that was popular in the 1970s. Column 5 in Figure 1.1 shows the primary affected neurological systems for each intelligence.
Figure 1.1. MI Theory Summary Chart
Note: This figure has been reformatted for more accessible reading in this e-book. View the original figure here.
Each intelligence is summarized in these areas: core components, symbol systems, high end-states, neurological systems (primary areas), developmental factors, ways that cultures value, evolutionary origins, presence in other species, and historical factors (relative to current U.S. values).
Word Smart
- Core Components: Sensitivity to the sounds, structure, meanings, and functions of words and language
- Symbol Systems: Phonetic languages (e.g., English)
- High End-States: Writer, orator (e.g., Virginia Woolf, Martin Luther King Jr.)
- Neurological Systems (Primary Areas): Left temporal and frontal lobes (e.g., Broca's/Wernicke's areas)
- Developmental Factors: "Explodes" in early childhood; remains robust until old age
- Ways That Cultures Value: Oral histories, storytelling, literature
- Evolutionary Origins: Written notations found dating to 30,000 years ago
- Presence in Other Species: Apes' ability to name things by pointing
- Historical Factors (Relative to Current U.S. Values): Oral transmission more important before printing press
Number/Logic Smart
- Core Components: Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logical or numerical patterns; ability to handle long chains of reasoning
- Symbol Systems: Computer languages (e.g., HTML)
- High End-States: Scientist, mathematician (e.g., Madame Curie, Blaise Pascal)
- Neurological Systems (Primary Areas): Left frontal and right parietal lobes
- Developmental Factors: Peaks in adolescence and early adulthood; higher math insights decline after age 40
- Ways That Cultures Value: Scientific discoveries, mathematical theories, counting and classification systems
- Evolutionary Origins: Early number systems and calendars found
- Presence in Other Species: Bees calculate distances through their dances
- Historical Factors (Relative to Current U.S. Values): More important with advent of "coding" skills (computer programming)
Picture Smart
- Core Components: Capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one's initial perceptions
- Symbol Systems: Use of line, shape, form, color, perspective, and so on.
- High-End States: Artist, architect (e.g., Frida Kahlo, I. M. Pei)
- Neurological Systems (Primary Areas): Posterior regions of right hemisphere
- Developmental Factors: Topological thinking in early childhood gives way to Euclidean paradigm around age 9–10; artistic capacity stays robust into old age
- Ways That Cultures Value: Artistic works, navigational systems, architectural designs, inventions
- Evolutionary Origins: Prehistorical cave drawings of Lascaux and other sites around the world
- Presence in Other Species: Territorial instinct of many species
- Historical Factors (Relative to Current U.S. Values): More important with advent of mass media, video, the internet, and other image-based technologies
Body Smart
- Core Components: Ability to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully
- Symbol Systems: Sports diagrams (e.g. football playbook)
- High-End States: Athlete, dancer, sculptor (e.g., Mohammed Ali, Martha Graham, Auguste Rodin)
- Neurological Systems (Primary Areas): Cerebellum, basal ganglia, motor cortex
- Developmental Factors: Varies depending upon skill (strength, flexibility, endurance) or domain (gymnastics, baseball, mime)
- Ways That Cultures Value: Crafts, athletic performances, dramatic works, dance forms, sculpture
- Evolutionary Origins: Evidence of early tool use in prehistoric times
- Presence in Other Species: Tool use of primates, anteaters, and other species
- Hi...
