3
Redeeming the Time
WHATâS THAT? YOU DONâT UNDERSTAND THIS WHOLE âMETERâ thing? As far as you can tell, Iambicâs last name is Pentameter? And you think rhythm should be followed by blues? Welcome to the club. There is perhaps nothing about poetry that is as disconcerting as the whole business of meter and rhythm. What about all those terrible things we call lines of poetry in English? You know, trochaic trimeter and dactylic hexameter, that sort of nonsense. Another linguistic accident: an unholy marriage of Greek terminology filtered through Latin. That sort of thing begets monsters. But it is the terminology, not the lines, that are monstrous. Hereâs the basic fact: for most of its history, poetry in English has been built on a foundation of lines that in turn are built out of words arranged to form rhythmic patterns. These patterns canâand often doâfind their way into songs. And once we know the basic patterns, we have only to count how often they repeat in a line to name it.
Forget Greek; think music. With a little arithmetic. Find the beat, then count it off.
Letâs move a little slowly here; this stuff can make heads spin. First, the one word you might know: âiamb.â Which, for the record, isnât one; itâs a trochee (more in a moment). An iamb is a metrical foot (which means a repeatable pattern of stresses) composed of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable, which we can denote as âda-DUMâ (as in âweak-STRONGâ). âSucceedâ is an iamb. So is âelect.â Its paired opposition, metrically, is âtrochee,â which unlike âiambâ is the thing it designates, a pair of syllables in which the first is stressedââDUM-da,â or, in this case, âTRO-chee.â Or âI-amb.â
Hereâs the thing to remember: the metrical foot is independent of the word. That is to say, sometimes the poetic line may use âsucceedâ as a complete metrical foot, in this case an iamb, but it is just as likely to split it, so that âsuc-â is the second syllable of a trochee, while â-CEEDâ is the first syllable in another one. In that particular line, the poet might have options to use âFLOUR-ishâ or âTRI-umph,â but the meter dictates a word with the second syllable accented, so âsuc-CEEDâ would be the choice. Is it any surprise that we get confused about all of this? Try to remember this: In metrical counting, words donât matter; syllables do.
METER AT WORK
LETâS PUT THIS newfound knowledge into practice. Here is the opening quatrain of a fairly famous poem. Good news hereâthereâs not one word in it that you donât know, and only one funky ending:
That time of year thou mayâst in me behold
When yellow leaves, or none, or few, do hang
Upon those boughs which shake against the cold,
Bare ruinâd choirs, where late the sweet birds sang.
Even if you donât know about the poet, you know that the poem is old, right? Not a lot of poets in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have gone around using âthouâ or âmayâst,â although the number isnât quite zero. This sonnet has a number, 73, and it belongs to Shakespeare, which puts it back a spell (the original book of his sonnets appeared in 1609). Weâll come back to it as a poetic statement later on, but for now weâre just talking about rhythm and meter. And the meter here is iambic pentameter, or five of those little âda-DUMâ iambs laid end to end to make a line: âThÄt tĂme Ćf yĂ©ar thĆu mĂĄyâst Än mĂ© bÄ-hĂłld,â with syllables 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 stressed. Same thing in the next two linesâstresses on the even syllables. But then something different in line four: âBĂĄre rĂșinâd chĂłirs, whÄre lĂĄte thÄ swĂ©et bÄrds sĂĄng.â Whoa! Thatâs not iambic or pentameter. Two things stand out here. First, we have that hammering effect of three consecutive stressed syllables, after which we can hardly find our bearings to see if any iambs remain (they do). And after we get over that rhythmic shock, we discover that somebody stole a syllable; itâs tough to have five iambs with only nine syllables. So we have only nine, but six of those are stressed. Is that even legal? Yes, it is. Meter isnât law; itâs framework. If it is slavishly followed as law, moreover, the result is monotonous and more often than not unintentionally funny. We actually need relief from the pattern every once in a while, at least where lyric poetry is concerned.
NARRATIVE POEMS ARE ANOTHER STORY. THIS ONE HAS A DIFFERENT pattern at work. True, it has a few squirrelly words, but theyâre either made up or borrowed from Native American lore, and in any case, they donât get in the way of the meaning:
By the shore of Gitche Gumee,
By the shining Big-Sea-Water,
At the doorway of his wigwam,
In the pleasant Summer morning,
Hiawatha stood and waited.
All the air was full of freshness,
All the earth was bright and joyous,
And before him, through the sunshine,
Westward toward the neighboring forest
Passed in golden swarms the Ahmo,
Passed the bees, the honey-makers,
Burning, singing in the sunshine.
This is music of a different sort. And compared to Shakespeare, practically brand-new. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, in 1855, produced one of the great American epics, The Song of Hiawatha, of which this is the beginning of the final chapter, âHiawathaâs Departure.â
The first thing you will notice, especially if youâve just read Shakespeareâs sonnet opening, is that somebody moved the stresses. They are in front of their unstressed partners, giving us âDUM-da, DUM-da.â Or maybe you notice that the lines are shorter; you see that change even before reading it. Donât discount cues like this, which tell us simply by taking up less of the page that the count of metrical feet will be smaller. Here, there are four feet per line. We call that one tetrameter, meaning âfour feetâ (think of it as four bounces, âUP-downâ). And the feet themselves? Trochees. Put them together and you get trochaic tetrameter, or âtrochees times four.â So why this particular arrangement of stresses for this long poem? For one thing, thereâs a touch of cultural appropriation here: Longfellow is aiming for a drumbeat pattern. And as we know from our classic Western movies, drumbeats never arrange themselves into iambs.
On top of that, the comparatively short lines and symmetry (four feet split evenly in a way that five feet never do) encourages readers to march along, line after line for a very long time, four beats and forward, four beats and forward. For Longfellow in this poem, the goal is to drive us down the page and over to the next page and the next and the next. Which is important because there are a lot of next pages.
The third of these elements is whatâs called the âfeminineâ ending. All that means is that the last syllable of the line is unstressed. Stressed final syllables are called âmasculine.â We will just have to get past the inherent sexismâstrength is manly, and so onâand agree that neither you nor I chose the names. While I donât find unstressed syllables particularly gendered one way or another, I do find them slightly unfinished when they end a line. I suppose my ear is attuned to the cadences of iambs and lines ending on the beat. We can return to the matter of line endings and sex another time, but this discussion is enough trauma for now.
So there you have it. Two poems, two different meters with stresses reversed and line lengths varied. There are lots more options where those came from. One of these is pentameter, the other tetrameter. So just how many meters are there? There is theoretically no limit, although practically the number is small. Thank goodness! One can hardly imagine a single-foot line: just two syllables, and then on to the next line of just two, and so on, marching the metrical order down the page. A two-foot line is slightly more likely, which is why there is actually a word for it, âdimeter,â although I have yet to see one that doesnât take frequent liberties with both meter and number of syllables. Here are the usual suspects:
- Dimeter: two metrical feet (of whatever shape, as with all of these)
- Trimeter: three metrical feet
- Tetrameter: four
- Pentameter: five
- Hexameter: six
- Heptameter: seven
- Octameter: eight
- Beyond here there be monsters . . .
This isnât so tough. If we ignore the âmeters,â we recognize those prefixes from âdi-â (as in âdichotomyâ) to âtri-â (as in pretty much everything) and âpenta-â (as in the Pentagon) to âhepta-â (as in the once every four years the heptathlon womenâs track multievent). True, âtetra-âdoesnât come up much in everyday speech, so that one you may have to commit to memory; the rest, however, you can mostly figure out. Better still, the shortest one and the longest two donât occur very often in nature, so we really only have recourse to trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, and hexameter on a regular basis.
So thatâs how lines count off their feet, but how do we reckon the feet themselves? Because there are names, although, alas, they are all Greek. And their number for our purposes is five:
- Iamb: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllableâ âda-DUM,â as in âde-LAYâ or, pronounced correctly, âde-TROITâ
- Trochee: the opposite, a stressed followed by an unstressed syllableââDUM-da,â as in âTHOM-as FOS-terâ
- Spondee: two stressed syllables in a rowââDUM-DUM,â as in âDUMB-DUMBâ
- Anapest: a three-syllable foot, two unstressed syllables followed by one stressedââda-da-DUM,â as in âin the HOUSEâ
- Dactyl: the reverse, one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones: âDUM-da-da,â as in âNOT a ch...