Chemistry
Properties of Solids
The properties of solids include definite shape and volume, strong intermolecular forces, and low compressibility. Solids have a fixed arrangement of particles in a crystalline or amorphous structure, and they exhibit a characteristic melting point. Additionally, solids have high density and are not easily compressible due to the close packing of particles.
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9 Key excerpts on "Properties of Solids"
eBook - PDF- John Kenkel(Author)
- 2010(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
There are two kinds of properties: physical properties and chemical properties . Physical properties are physical characteristics that might be determined by simple observation or measurement and involve no chemical change . Most of the examples just listed—namely color, odor, taste, physical appearance, physical state (solid, liquid, or gas), and solubility—are physical properties . All of these may be determined by simple observation with one of the five senses, such as sight (e .g ., color, sheen, physical state,) or smell (e .g ., odor) . Other physical properties require measurement, and some of these require calculations . Examples are melting point, boiling point, and density . Melting point, the temperature at which a solid substance is converted to a liquid (such as 32°F [0°C] for ice to water), and boiling point, the temperature at which a liquid substance boils (such as 212°F [100°C] for water) require the measure-ment of temperature . Because of this, these physical properties have numbers associated with them . They are physical properties because they are charac-teristics by which water may be described or identified through simple obser-vation or measurement . Density is a physical property that indicates how heavy a substance is compared with how much space it occupies (its volume) . Considering two metal blocks of equal size—one made of aluminum and one made of lead—it is easy to understand the concept . The lead block is much heavier than the aluminum block in spite of the fact that the blocks have the same volume . Lead has a greater density, or greater mass or weight, per given volume . Density is something that is measured and requires a calculation to know what it is . In a chemistry laboratory, it is easy to measure the weight of a quantity of matter, and it can also be easy to measure volume . Density is calculated by dividing the measured weight by the measured volume .
eBook - PDFThermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
An Integrated Approach
- M. Scott Shell(Author)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
14 Solids 14.1 General Properties of Solids The term “solids” denotes materials that generally have the following properties. From a microscopic perspective, the molecules in a solid are in a condensed, closely packed state, and they vibrate around a fixed equilibrium position. That is, molecules can be considered tethered near a specific location in space, since their diffusion is very slow relative to the time scales of observation. From a macroscopic point of view, solids have an elastic modulus. This means that the application of a stress to the material produces a strain as well as an opposing force that tends to return the solid to its original, unstrained state once the stress is removed. This contrasts with viscous behavior in which an applied stress results in continuous, permanent deformation, such as the flow of a liquid. Generally speaking, there are two primary classes of solids. Crystalline solids are equilibrium states of matter in which the microscopic structure has a well-defined geometric pattern with long-range order: a crystalline lattice. In contrast to crystals, amorphous solids have no long-range order, meaning that they lack a lattice structure and regular positioning of the molecules. Glasses and many polymeric materials are amorphous. Frequently these systems are not at equilibrium, but evolve very slowly in time and are metastable with respect to a crystalline phase. They might be considered liquids of extremely high viscosity that are slowly en route to crystallization. However, typically the time scale to reach equilibrium is so long (perhaps longer than the age of the universe) that for all practical purposes the amorphous state appears solid and stable. Thus, in an empirical sense, often we can treat such systems as in quasi- equilibrium.
eBook - PDF- Thomas Flynn(Author)
- 2004(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
5 Transport Properties of Solids 1. THERMAL PROPERTIES The thermal properties of materials at low temperatures of most interest to the process engineer are specific heat, thermal conductivity, and thermal expansivity. (We shall use the term ‘‘specific heat’’ to refer to a material property and the term ‘‘heat capacity’’ to refer to the atomic scale contributions to specific heat.) It will be shown that each of these properties depends on the intermolecular potential of the lattice and accordingly that they are interrelated. 1.1. Specific Heat 1.1.1. Lattice Heat Capacity Nearly all the physical properties of a solid (e.g., specific heat, thermal expansion) depend on the vibration or motion of the atoms in the solid. Specific heat is often measured at low temperatures for design purposes. However, specific heat measure-ments are important in their own right, because the variation of specific heat with temperature shows how energy is distributed among the various energy-absorbing modes of the solid. Thus specific heat measurements give important clues to the structure of the solid. Finally, because other properties also depend on the lattice structure and its vibration, specific heat measurements are used to predict or corre-late other properties, such as thermal expansion. Therefore, an understanding of the temperature dependence of specific heat not only gives useful design information but also is helpful in predicting other thermal properties. The specific heat of any material is defined from thermodynamics as C V ¼ @ U @ T V ð 5 : 1 Þ where U is the internal energy, T is the absolute temperature, and V is the volume. C V is the property more useful to theory than C P , because it directly relates internal energy, and hence the microscopic structure of the solid, to temperature. However, it must be remembered that most solids expand when they are heated at constant pressure. As a result, the solid does work against both internal and external forces.
eBook - PDF- R. E. Smallman, A.H.W. Ngan(Authors)
- 2011(Publication Date)
- Butterworth-Heinemann(Publisher)
Chapter 5 Physical properties 5.1 Introduction The ways in which any material interacts and responds to various forms of energy are of prime interest to scientists and, in the context of engineering, provide the essential base for design and innovation. The energy acting on a material may derive from force fields (gravitational, electric, magnetic), electromagnetic radiation (heat, light, X-rays), high-energy particles, etc. The responses of a material, generally referred to as its physical properties, are governed by the structural arrangement of atoms/ions/molecules in the material. The theme of the structure–property relation which has run through previous chapters is developed further. Special attention will be given to the diffusion of atoms/ions within materials because of the importance of thermal behavior during manufacture and service. In this brief examination, which will range from density to superconductivity, the most important physical properties of materials are considered. 5.2 Density This property, defined as the mass per unit volume of a material, increases regularly with increasing atomic numbers in each subgroup. The reciprocal of the density is the specific volume v , while the product of v and the relative atomic mass W is known as the atomic volume . The density may be determined by the usual ‘immersion’ method, but it is instructive to show how X-rays can be used. For example, a powder photograph may give the lattice parameter of an fcc metal, say copper, as 0.36 nm. Then 1 / (3 . 6 × 10 − 10 ) 3 or 2.14 × 10 28 cells of this size (0.36 nm) are found in a cube of 1 m edge length. The total number of atoms in 1 m 3 is then 4 × 2.14 × 10 28 = 8.56 × 10 28 since an fcc cell contains four atoms. Furthermore, the mass of a copper atom is 63.57 times the mass of a hydrogen atom (which is 1.63 × 10 − 24 g) so that the mass of 1 m 3 of copper, i.e. the density, is 8.56 × 10 28 × 63.57 × 1.63 × 10 − 24 = 8900 kg m − 3 .
eBook - PDFMetals and Materials
Science, Processes, Applications
- R. E. Smallman, R J Bishop(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Butterworth-Heinemann(Publisher)
Chapter 6 The physical properties of materials 6.1 Introduction The ways in which any material interacts and responds to various forms of energy are of prime interest to scientists and, in the context of engineer-ing, provide the essential base for design and innovation. The energy acting on a material may derive from force fields (gravitational, electric, magnetic), electromagnetic radiation (heat, light, X-rays), high-energy particles, etc. The responses of a material, generally referred to as its physical properties, are governed by the structural arrange-ment of atoms/ions/molecules in the material. The theme of the structure/property relation which has run through previous chapters is developed further. Special attention will be given to the diffusion of atoms/ions within materials because of the impor-tance of thermal behaviour during manufacture and service. In this brief examination, which will range from density to superconductivity, the most impor-tant physical properties of materials are considered. 6.2 Density This property, defined as the mass per unit volume of a material, increases regularly with increasing atomic numbers in each sub-group. The reciprocal of the density is the specific volume v, while the product of v and the relative atomic mass W is known as the atomic volume Ω. The density may be determined by the usual 'immersion' method, but it is instructive to show how X-rays can be used. For example, a powder photograph may give the lattice parameter of an fee metal, say copper, as 0.36 nm. Then 1/(3.6 X Kh 10 ) 3 or 2.14 X 10 28 cells of this size (0.36 nm) are found in a cube 1 m edge length. The total number of atoms in 1 m 3 is then 4 X 2.14 X 10 28 = 8.56 X 10 28 since an fee cell contains four atoms. Furthermore, the mass of a copper atom is 63.57 times the mass of a hydrogen atom (which is 1.63 x 10~ 24 g) so that the mass of 1 m 3 of copper, i.e. the density, is 8.56 X 10 28 X 63.57 X 1.63 X 10~ 24 = 8900 kg nr 3 .
eBook - PDFChemistry
The Molecular Nature of Matter
- Neil D. Jespersen, Alison Hyslop(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
© Blaine Harrington / Age Fotostock Intermolecular Attractions and the Properties of Liquids and Solids Chapter Outline 11.1 | Intermolecular Forces 11.2 | Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties 11.3 | Changes of State and Dynamic Equilibria 11.4 | Vapor Pressures of Liquids and Solids 11.5 | Boiling Points of Liquids 11.6 | Energy and Changes of State 11.7 | Phase Diagrams 11.8 | Le Châtelier’s Principle and Changes of State 11.9 | Determining Heats of Vaporization 11.10 | Structures of Crystalline Solids 11.11 | Determining the Structure of Solids 11.12 | Crystal Types and Physical Properties Devil’s Tower in Wyoming dramatically rises 1267 feet above the surrounding land. The rock is considered to be formed from lava cooling slowly in the earth’s crust. This slow cooling allowed the crystalline columns to develop. While most liquid-to-solid phase transitions do not produce national monuments, they are important in our study of the physical properties of substances, which we will cover in this chapter. 11 515 516 Chapter 11 | Intermolecular Attractions and the Properties of Liquids and Solids I n Chapter 10 we studied the physical properties of gases, and we learned that all gases behave pretty much alike, regardless of their chemical composition. However, when we compare substances in their liquid or solid states (their condensed states), the situation is quite different. When a substance is a liquid or a solid, its particles are packed closely together and the forces between them, which we call intermolecular forces, are quite strong. Chemical composition and molecular structure play an important role in determining the strengths of such forces, and this causes one substance to behave differently from another when they are liquids or solids. We begin our study by looking at the basic differences among the states of matter in terms of both common observable properties and the way the states of matter differ at the molecular level.
- R. E. Smallman, R J Bishop(Authors)
- 1999(Publication Date)
- Butterworth-Heinemann(Publisher)
Chapter 6The physical properties of materials
6.1 Introduction
The ways in which any material interacts and responds to various forms of energy are of prime interest to scientists and, in the context of engineering, provide the essential base for design and innovation. The energy acting on a material may derive from force fields (gravitational, electric, magnetic), electromagnetic radiation (heat, light, X-rays), high-energy particles, etc. The responses of a material, generally referred to as its physical properties, are governed by the structural arrangement of atoms/ions/molecules in the material. The theme of the structure/property relation which has run through previous chapters is developed further. Special attention will be given to the diffusion of atoms/ions within materials because of the importance of thermal behaviour during manufacture and service. In this brief examination, which will range from density to superconductivity, the most important physical properties of materials are considered.6.2 Density
This property, defined as the mass per unit volume of a material, increases regularly with increasing atomic numbers in each sub-group. The reciprocal of the density is the specific volume ν , while the product of ν and the relative atomic mass W is known as the atomic volume . The density may be determined by the usual ‘immersion’ method, but it is instructive to show how X-rays can be used. For example, a powder photograph may give the lattice parameter of an fcc metal, say copper, as 0.36 nm. Then 1/(3.6 × 10−10 )3 or 2.14 × 1028 cells of this size (0.36 nm) are found in a cube 1 m edge length. The total number of atoms in 1 m3 is then 4 × 2.14 × 1028 = 8.56 × 1028 since an fcc cell contains four atoms. Furthermore, the mass of a copper atom is 63.57 times the mass of a hydrogen atom (which is 1.63 × 10−24 g) so that the mass of 1 m1 of copper, i.e. the density, is 8.56 × 1028 × 63.57 × 1.63 × 10−24 = 8900 kg m−3
eBook - PDF- Leo J. Malone, Theodore O. Dolter(Authors)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
A simple example of a variable property is the taste and color of a cup of coffee. The more coffee that is dissolved in the water, the stron- ger the taste and the darker the solution. Now consider the properties of two com- pounds alone: table salt and water. Solid table salt (sodium chloride) melts at 801C and water ice melts at 0C. A solution of salt in water begins to freeze anywhere from -18C to just under 0C, depending on the amount of salt dissolved. Also, a particular saltwater solution does not have a sharp, unchanging boiling point or freezing point, as does pure water. Density is another physical property that is different for a solution compared to the pure liquid component. For example, battery acid is a solution of a com- pound, sulfuric acid, in water. Its density is greater than that of pure water. The more sulfuric acid present, the denser is the solution. In a fully charged battery, the density is about 1.30 g/mL; if it is mostly discharged, the density is about 1.15 g/mL. The classification of matter from the most complex, a sample of heterogeneous matter (at the upper left), to the most basic form of homogeneous matter, a pure element (at the lower left), is illustrated in Figure 3-7. 3-3.3 Percent Composition of Solutions On the label of a typical bottle of wine, we see that it is composed of 13% alcohol. This certainly gives us an idea of how potent the wine may be. A solution is composed of the solvent, which is the dissolving medium (in this case water), and the solute, the substance dissolved in the solvent (in this case alcohol). In the case of wine, there are several different solutes present besides alcohol. The concentration of the solution refers to how much of a specific solute is present in a specific amount of solvent or solution. There are several ways that we can express concentration of solutions.
eBook - PDF- Harry Cather, Richard Douglas Morris, Mathew Philip, Chris Rose(Authors)
- 2001(Publication Date)
- Newnes(Publisher)
Crystalline solids In a crystalline solid, the atoms or molecules form a regular three-dimensional pattern in space. They are said to have long range order since the structure will look largely the same throughout a piece of metal. When the material is cooled from a temperature where it is a fluid to one where it is solid, a substantial amount of energy is released. This property is referred to as the latent heat of fusion for the material. Its effect can be seen by measuring the change in temperature of the material as it cools as illustrated in Figure 3.2.10. At the point of transition from liquid to solid, the temperature remains constant over a period of time. This temperature, T m , is the melting temperature of the material. All crystalline materials have an associated melting temperature. The energy released reduces the kinetic energy of each atom or molecule so that in the solid, there is no translational energy, that is to say they cannot move freely within the solid. Instead the constituents (atoms or molecules) vibrate about an average position. Since they cannot move about freely anymore, the distance between the Figure 3.2.9 Example of hydrogen bonding Properties of materials 89 constituents reduces considerably when the material solidifies. This is measurable as a decrease in the volume of a given quantity of material, or its specific volume as illustrated in Figure 3.2.11. Since, specific volume = 1/density, there is an increase in density when a material crystallizes. Types of crystal The arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline solid can be studied using X-ray crystallography. X-rays of wavelength less than 10 –9 m will penetrate the space between atoms and from their reflections, the dimensions of the crystal can be established. The smallest repeating unit of the crystal is called a unit cell . The knowledge of its structure therefore helps to identify the structure of the material as a whole.
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