Physics
Solids
Solids are one of the three main states of matter, characterized by a fixed shape and volume. The particles in a solid are closely packed and have strong attractive forces between them, resulting in a rigid structure. Solids can exhibit various properties such as elasticity, hardness, and conductivity, and they play a fundamental role in many physical phenomena and applications.
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eBook - PDFThermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics
An Integrated Approach
- M. Scott Shell(Author)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
14 Solids 14.1 General properties of Solids The term “Solids” denotes materials that generally have the following properties. From a microscopic perspective, the molecules in a solid are in a condensed, closely packed state, and they vibrate around a fixed equilibrium position. That is, molecules can be considered tethered near a specific location in space, since their diffusion is very slow relative to the time scales of observation. From a macroscopic point of view, Solids have an elastic modulus. This means that the application of a stress to the material produces a strain as well as an opposing force that tends to return the solid to its original, unstrained state once the stress is removed. This contrasts with viscous behavior in which an applied stress results in continuous, permanent deformation, such as the flow of a liquid. Generally speaking, there are two primary classes of Solids. Crystalline Solids are equilibrium states of matter in which the microscopic structure has a well-defined geometric pattern with long-range order: a crystalline lattice. In contrast to crystals, amorphous Solids have no long-range order, meaning that they lack a lattice structure and regular positioning of the molecules. Glasses and many polymeric materials are amorphous. Frequently these systems are not at equilibrium, but evolve very slowly in time and are metastable with respect to a crystalline phase. They might be considered liquids of extremely high viscosity that are slowly en route to crystallization. However, typically the time scale to reach equilibrium is so long (perhaps longer than the age of the universe) that for all practical purposes the amorphous state appears solid and stable. Thus, in an empirical sense, often we can treat such systems as in quasi- equilibrium.
No longer available |Learn more- (Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Academic Studio(Publisher)
________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Chapter 1 Classical States of Matter 1. Solid Single crystalline form of solid Insulin Solid is one of the major states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other, either in a regular geometric lattice (crystalline Solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass). The branch of physics that deals with Solids is called solid-state physics, and is the main branch of condensed matter physics (which also includes liquids). Materials science is primarily concerned with the physical and chemical properties of Solids. Solid-state chemistry is especially concerned with the synthesis of novel materials, as well as the science of identification and chemical composition. ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Metamorphic banded gneiss Microscopic description Model of closely packed atoms within a crystalline solid. ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Schematic representation of a random-network glassy form (top) and ordered crystalline lattice (bottom) of identical chemical composition. The atoms, molecules or ions which make up a solid may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals. In some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal.
No longer available |Learn more- (Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- College Publishing House(Publisher)
________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Chapter 1 Classical States of Matter 1. Solid Single crystalline form of solid Insulin. Solid is one of the major states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other, either in a regular geometric lattice (crystalline Solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass). The branch of physics that deals with Solids is called solid-state physics, and is the main branch of condensed matter physics (which also includes liquids). Materials science is primarily concerned with the physical and chemical properties of Solids. Solid-state chemistry is especially concerned with the synthesis of novel materials, as well as the science of identification and chemical composition. ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Metamorphic banded gneiss Microscopic description Model of closely packed atoms within a crystalline solid. ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Schematic representation of a random-network glassy form (top) and ordered crystalline lattice (bottom) of identical chemical composition. The atoms, molecules or ions which make up a solid may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals. In some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal.
No longer available |Learn more- (Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Library Press(Publisher)
________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Chapter- 4 Solid-state Physics Solid-state physics is the study of rigid matter, or Solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism and metallurgy. It is the largest branch of condensed matter physics. Solid-state physics studies how the large-scale properties of solid materials result from their atomic-scale properties. Thus, solid-state physics forms the theoretical basis of materials science. It also has direct applications, for example in the technology of transistors and semiconductors. Introduction Solid materials are formed from densely-packed atoms, with intense interaction forces between them. These interactions are responsible for the mechanical (e.g. hardness and elasticity), thermal, electrical, magnetic and optical properties of Solids. Depending on the material involved and the conditions in which it was formed, the atoms may be arranged in a regular, geometric pattern (crystalline Solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass). The bulk of solid-state physics theory and research is focused on crystals, largely because the periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its defining characteristic — facilitates mathe-matical modeling, and also because crystalline materials often have electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties that can be exploited for engineering purposes. The forces between the atoms in a crystal can take a variety of forms. For example, in a crystal of sodium chloride (common salt), the crystal is made up of ionic sodium and chlorine, and held together with ionic bonds. In others, the atoms share electrons and form covalent bonds. In metals, electrons are shared amongst the whole crystal in metallic bonding. Finally, the noble gases do not undergo any of these types of bonding.
eBook - PDF- Richard L. Myers(Author)
- 2005(Publication Date)
- Greenwood(Publisher)
H Matter Introduction Physics involves the study of energy and mat- ter. Matter is anything that occupies space and possesses mass. In the last chapter, the interaction of heat and matter were exam- ined. It was seen that matter normally exists as one of three common phases: solid, liquid, gas. In this chapter these three phases will be examined in greater detail. The first part of the chapter will explore Solids and how Solids behave when subjected to forces. This will be followed by an examination of fluids and the basic principles of both the static and dynamic state. Solids Solids are the most obvious state of mat- ter for us; they are ubiquitous and come in all shapes and sizes. Solids are classified as either crystalline Solids or amorphous sol- ids. A crystalline solid displays a regular, repeating pattern of its constituent particles throughout the solid. At the microscopic level, crystalline Solids appear as crystals. Amorphous Solids do not display a regular repeating pattern of constituent particles. Crystalline Solids are composed of atoms, molecules, or ions that occupy specific posi- tions in a repeating pattern. The positions occupied by the particles are referred to as lattice points. The most basic repeating unit making up the crystalline solid is known as the unit cell. The unit cell repeats itself throughout the crystalline solid (Figure 7.1). Crystalline Solids can be classified according to the type of particles occupying the lattice points and the type of intermolec- ular forces present in the solid. Ions occupy the lattice points in an ionic solid, and the crystal is held together by the electrostatic attraction between cations and anions. Com- mon table salt is an example of a crystalline solid. In table salt, positive sodium ions and negative chloride ions occupy lattice points in a repeating crystalline pattern.
eBook - PDF- George C. King(Author)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
8 Solids In Chapter 2, we discussed why a substance occurs in gaseous, liquid, or solid form. We saw that it was due to a competition between the binding energy of the constituent molecules and their thermal, kinetic energy. In gases, the kinetic energy dominates and the molecules are essentially free to move around their container, unaffected by their neighbours except for elastic collisions. Solids lie at the other extreme. In Solids, the binding energy dominates and the molecules or atoms are tightly bound and closely packed together rigid. This results in the most characteristic property of Solids. They have appreciable stiffness and maintain their shape. Solids appear in a wide variety of forms. Of these, crystalline Solids provide an ideal form to understand the structure and properties of Solids. This is because of their high degree of regularity; a reoccurring pattern of atomic positions that extends over many atoms. Consequently, we will focus most of our attention on the crystalline state of matter. Nearly everything we know about crystal structures has been learnt from dif- fraction experiments. In this chapter, we introduce the principles of X-ray crystallography and how it is used to determine crystal structure. We also relate the properties of Solids to the forces acting between their constituent atoms. This follows on from our discussion of interatomic forces in Chapter 2. 8.1 Types of Solids Solids may be classified as crystalline, amorphous, or polymeric. We may distinguish between crystalline and amorphous Solids as follows. At sufficiently low temperatures, most substances will condense to form a solid. If the substance is cooled sufficiently slowly, the atoms have time to arrange themselves into a reg- ular array with long-range order. By this, we mean that there is a well-defined spatial relationship between atoms that are far from each other, i.e. much further than the mean distance between the atoms.
No longer available |Learn moreSolid State Physics
From the Material Properties of Solids to Nanotechnologies
- David Schmool(Author)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Mercury Learning and Information(Publisher)
The specifics of the changes of phase are crucially dependent on the atomic species and the num- ber of electrons it contains. Solid state physics is a broad area of modern physics which deals with the fundamental physical properties of materials in their frozen phase. Materials come in a variety of forms and the way we clas- sify substances depends on what properties we are interested in. For example, when we discuss electrical properties of materials, we separate them into groups depending on whether they conduct well (e.g. metals), poorly (insulators) or somewhere in between (semi- conductors). In terms of magnetism, we divide materials into those with differing magnetic order; ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, para- magnetic etc. It is one of the main concerns of this book to outline this differentiation of material Solids, as well as to give an overview of the relation between atomic species, atomic ordering and the physi- cal phenomena and properties of solid matter. At the root of all solid state physics are two basic aspects: chemi- cal composition and their spatial arrangement. In simple terms, what we have and how they arrange themselves with respect to one another. Atomic species will determine how they bond together (if at all). The bonding mechanism will frequently determine the spa- tial arrangement of atoms, thus giving a specific crystalline structure (taken under equilibrium conditions). The resulting physical proper- ties are principally determined by these two factors. For example, in metals, atoms are held together by the interaction between the ionic cores and free electrons, typically in some form of close packed structure. The mechanical properties are directly related to the bond strength between the atoms, which in turn depends on the type of atom (number of electrons). The structure will determine how the mechanical properties vary with direction, i.e., the anisotropy in the elastic constants of the material.
No longer available |Learn more- (Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Academic Studio(Publisher)
________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Chapter 3 Solid Single crystalline form of solid Insulin Solid is one of the major states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume. Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of its container, nor does it expand to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas does. The atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other, either in a regular geometric lattice (crystalline Solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an amorphous solid such as common window glass). The branch of physics that deals with Solids is called solid-state physics, and is the main branch of condensed matter physics (which also includes liquids). Materials science is primarily concerned with the physical and chemical properties of Solids. Solid-state chemistry is especially concerned with the synthesis of novel materials, as well as the science of identification and chemical composition. ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Metamorphic banded gneiss Microscopic description Model of closely packed atoms within a crystalline solid ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ The atoms, molecules or ions which make up a solid may be arranged in an orderly repeating pattern, or irregularly. Materials whose constituents are arranged in a regular pattern are known as crystals. In some cases, the regular ordering can continue unbroken over a large scale, for example diamonds, where each diamond is a single crystal. Solid objects that are large enough to see and handle are rarely composed of a single crystal, but instead are made of a large number of single crystals, known as crystallites, whose size can vary from a few nanometers to several meters. Such materials are called polycrystalline. Almost all common metals, and many ceramics, are polycrystalline.
eBook - PDF- Ageetha Vanamudan(Author)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Delve Publishing(Publisher)
Bose- Einstein condensate is a state of matter that can only be found at extremely low temperatures. Solids are one of the four fundamental states of matter, along with liquids, gases, and plasma. A solid’s molecules are densely packed and have the lowest kinetic energy of any material. The structural stiffness and resistance to external pressures on a solid’s surface characterize it. In contrast to a liquid, a solid does not flow or expand to fill its container to its full capacity. When it comes to Solids, atoms can be arranged in either a regular geometric lattice (as in crystalline Solids such as metals and ice) or randomly (as in conventional window glass)). Solids cannot be squeezed at low pressures due to the loose packing of molecules in a gas, whereas gases may be crushed at low pressures. Introduction to Molecular Science 172 Figure 10.6: The condensation process. Source: https://media.istockphoto.com/vectors/condensation-on-a-window- vector-id1292579909?k=20&m=1292579909&s=612x612&w=0&h=D7Ky- zXPFncmYANsuKePEg484UDdtvu8tfazOPNkjg0= Solid-state physics, which works with both liquids and gases, is one of the most significant subfields in condensed matter physics (which also includes liquids). Materials science is concerned with the physical and chemical properties of Solids. New materials are created in solid-state chemistry, and their chemical composition and identification are explored. Solids are created by arranging atoms, molecules, and ions in either a symmetrical or asymmetrical form. There are two kinds of crystals: crystallized crystals and non-crystallized crystals. The large-scale structure may survive without interruption in some contexts, such instance with diamonds, where each diamond is a distinct crystal. Many huge Solids that can be seen and touched are made up of crystallites, which can be as tiny as a few nanometers or as massive as a few meters. Polycrystalline substances are composed of numerous crystals.
eBook - PDF- Edward J. Neth, Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold, Richard Langley, William R. Robinson(Authors)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Openstax(Publisher)
• Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions and do not generally move in relation to one another; in a liquid, they move past each other but remain in essentially constant contact; in a gas, they move independently of one another except when they collide. The differences in the properties of a solid, liquid, or gas reflect the strengths of the attractive forces between the atoms, molecules, or ions that make up each phase. The phase in which a substance exists depends on the relative extents of its intermolecular forces (IMFs) and the kinetic energies (KE) of its molecules. IMFs are the various forces of attraction that may exist between the atoms and molecules of a substance due to electrostatic phenomena, as will be detailed in this module. These forces serve to hold particles close together, whereas the particles’ KE provides the energy required to overcome the attractive forces and thus increase the distance between particles. Figure 10.2 illustrates how changes in physical state may be induced by changing the temperature, hence, the average KE, of a given substance. FIGURE 10.2 Transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous states of a substance occur when conditions of temperature or pressure favor the associated changes in intermolecular forces. (Note: The space between particles in the gas phase is much greater than shown.) As an example of the processes depicted in this figure, consider a sample of water. When gaseous water is cooled sufficiently, the attractions between H 2 O molecules will be capable of holding them together when they come into contact with each other; the gas condenses, forming liquid H 2 O. For example, liquid water forms on the outside of a cold glass as the water vapor in the air is cooled by the cold glass, as seen in Figure 10.3. 476 10 • Liquids and Solids Access for free at openstax.org
eBook - ePub200 Science Investigations for Young Students
Practical Activities for Science 5 - 11
- Martin Wenham(Author)
- 2000(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications Ltd(Publisher)
6States of Matter and Physical Change
6.1: Solids, liquids and gases
Most materials and objects which children encounter in everyday life are fairly obviously in one of three states of matter: solid, liquid or gas. Observing materials to find out how they are classified in this way is an essential preliminary to investigating changes between the three states and ways in which they may be brought about. The three states of matter are sometimes written or spoken about as if there were always sharp distinctions between them; but particularly between the solid and liquid states the distinction is not always clear (Activity 6.2.2 ) and even when it is, it may not appear to be (Activity 6.1.2 ).Activity 6.1.1
Distinguishing Solids from liquids
Equipment and materials: A range of (unlabelled) solid objects in a variety of materials, e.g. wood, stone, rubber (elastic bands), paper, modelling clay, plastics, metals. A range of liquids in labelled screw-top jars or bottles with tops sealed on, e.g. water, vegetable oil, thick sugar syrup, PVA glue; disposable cup; dropper; plastic or metal tray.- From all the objects in front of you, pick out the bottles or jars with liquids in them. Put them on one side to look at later.
- Look at the objects which are left. Try to identify the materials of which they are made.
- Try to change the shape of these objects by bending, pulling, squashing and twisting them in your hands. Do not break any of the objects: just find out if you can make them change shape.
- Are these objects solid or liquid? (They are solid.) Are they all solid? (Yes.) Are some more solid than others?
Children may mistakenly answer ‘Yes’ to the last question because they may equate solidity with rigidity or hardness and think that soft, squashy and stretchy materials like modelling clay and elastic bands are less solid than hard materials such as metal or stone.- What properties do all these objects have which makes us call them ‘solid’?
This may need some discussion. The scientific view is that Solids maintain their shape without support, although these shapes can be changed by applying forces to them. As children might put it, Solids ‘have their own shape’ and ‘stand up on their own’; but there are solid materials which need further investigation to find out how they behave (Activity 6.1.2
eBook - PDFEngineering Materials Science
Properties, Uses, Degradation, Remediation
- H McArthur, D Spalding(Authors)
- 2004(Publication Date)
- Woodhead Publishing(Publisher)
2 STATES OF MATTER AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 2.1 INTRODUCTION There are three states of matter, a gas or vapour, a liquid (the most common one being water) and a solid (which may be amorphous or crystalline). These three states (or phases) are shown by water as the solid ice, the liquid water and as the vapour steam. In this Chapter we focus on water, as this compound is responsible for a wide range of building defects and deterioration mechanisms (Chapters Sand 6). 2.2GASES Gas molecules exlubit constant translocational movement (visualised as billiard balls colliding) and fill the available volume. Gas molecules are modelled as having principally translocational kinetic energy and a relatively small amount ofvibrational kinetic energy (movement which stretches the interatomic bonds, e.g, Cl-Cl, 0-0, etc.). An increase in temperature increases the translocational kinetic energy to a greater extent than the vibrational kinetic energy. A decrease in temperature results in the molecules of a gas coming into closer proximity, so that bonding can occur and the gas (water vapour) condenses to form a liquid. 2.2.1 Ideal Gas Laws If one mole of a gas is confined in volume V at temperature T, the pressure exerted by the gas, p, obeys the relationship pV =RT, where R is the universal gas constant(= 8414 J/kmol.K) and Tis absolute temperature (K). For n moles of the gas, pV = nRT, where n = m!M and mis the mass of the gas of molecular weight M. This equation is the equation of state of a perfect gas, also known as the ideal ( perfect) gas law. 2.2.2 Fundamental Kinetic Theory Equation for a Gas The kinetic energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called the kinetic energy of the body. Suppose a gas molecule of mass m moving with velocity u is bought to rest in a distance s by a constant retarding force F (Figure 2.1 a). The original kinetic energy of the gas molecule is equal to Fs, and this must therefore be the work done in bringing the molecule to rest.
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