States of Matter

12 Key excerpts on "States of Matter"

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  Phase of Matter & Thermodynamic System

  • (Author)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Learning Press

    (Publisher)

  ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Chapter- 3 States of Matter States of Matter are the distinct forms that different phases of matter take on. His-torically, the distinction is made based on qualitative differences in bulk properties. Solid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed volume and shape; liquid is the state in which matter maintains a fixed volume but adapts to the shape of its container; and gas is the state in which matter expands to occupy whatever volume is available. States of Matter are also distinguished by pressure and temperature conditions, tra-nsitioning to other phases as these conditions change to favor their existence; for example, freezing transitions to melting with an increase in temperature. This diagram shows the nomenclature for the different phase transitions ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ More recently, distinctions between states have been based on differences in molecular interrelationships. Solid is the state in which intermolecular attractions keep the mole-cules in fixed spatial relationships. Liquid is the state in which intermolecular attractions keep molecules in proximity, but do not keep the molecules in fixed relationships. Gas is that state in which the molecules are comparatively separated and intermolecular attractions have relatively little effect on their respective motions. Plasma is a highly ionized gas that occurs at high temperatures. The intermolecular forces created by ionic attractions and repulsions give these compositions distinct properties, for which reason plasma is described as a fourth state of matter. Forms of matter that are not composed of molecules and are organized by different forces can also be considered different States of Matter. Fermionic condensate and the quark– gluon plasma are examples.

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  Foundations of Chemistry

  An Introductory Course for Science Students

  • Philippa B. Cranwell, Elizabeth M. Page(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  4 States of Matter At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: • Describe the three main States of Matter • Compare the motion of particles in solids, liquids, and gases and the strengths of interactions between particles in these materials • Describe the arrangement of particles in metals, ionic solids, and simple covalent and giant molecular structures • Explain how the physical properties of simple materials such as melting and boiling points are determined by the strengths of intermolecular forces in the materials • Understand the derivation of the ideal gas law and its relevance in defining the behaviour of gases 4.1 Introduction Chapter 2 showed that the type of bonding between atoms and the forces between molecules depend upon the nature of the elements that are bonded together. In this chapter, we will see how bonding and intermolecular forces determine the properties of materials. Most materials can be classified as solids, liquids, or gases – the three com-mon States of Matter. Most substances are made up of smaller particles such as atoms, molecules, or ions. In Chapter 2, it was shown that atoms within mole-cules have bonds between them called intramolecular forces, and molecules have weaker interactions between them known as intermolecular forces. It is the strength of the intermolecular forces that determines whether the substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas at room temperature. In solids, particles are relatively close to each other, usually in a regular arrangement. If a solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy and begin Foundations of Chemistry: An Introductory Course for Science Students , First Edition. Philippa B. Cranwell and Elizabeth M. Page. © 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Cranwell/Foundations

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  Physical Chemistry and Its Biological Applications

  • Wallace Brey(Author)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  One States of Matter The differences we observe in the characteristics of the three States of Matter—gas, liquid, and solid—depend upon the variation in the condi-tion of aggregation of the molecules of which the matter is composed. In this chapter some of the principles governing transformation of one state of matter into another are considered. Structural models for gases and liquids are discussed, and the relationships between the macro-scopic properties of these phases and the behavior and properties of individual molecules are examined, particularly from the viewpoint of the influence of forces between molecules. 1-1 MOLECULAR PICTURE OF MATTER From the properties of the gaseous state of matter, scientists have de-duced a model in which the molecules are relatively far apart and are free to move almost independently of one another. This picture is em-bodied in the kinetic theory, which describes the molecules of a gas as separated particles in continuous motion. Each molecule travels in a straight line until it collides with another molecule or strikes the wall of the vessel in which it is confined. W h e n the vessel is enlarged, mo-lecular motion causes the gas to spread throughout all the newly acces-sible space; the application of external pressure, however, readily compresses the gas into a smaller volume, for the molecules have a relatively large amount of empty space between them. In a liquid, the molecules are more restricted in their movement: They are able to roll past one another so that the liquid can flow, but it is only with considerable difficulty that they detach themselves from intimate association with other molecules in the bulk of the liquid, as they must do if the liquid is to be vaporized. In a solid, each molecule has a definitely assigned average position about which it vibrates; movement of the molecule away from its own small compartment, 2 ONE States of Matter formed by neighboring molecules, is a comparatively unusual event.

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  Chemistry for Today

  General, Organic, and Biochemistry

  • Spencer Seager, Michael Slabaugh, Maren Hansen, , Spencer Seager, Spencer Seager, Michael Slabaugh, Maren Hansen(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  (Section 6.2) 3 Use the kinetic molecular theory to explain and compare the properties of matter in different states. (Sections 6.3–6.5) 4 Do calculations to convert pressure and temperature values into various units. (Section 6.6) 5 Do calculations based on Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and the combined gas law. (Section 6.7) 6 Do calculations based on the ideal gas law. (Section 6.8) 7 Do calculations based on Dalton’s law. (Section 6.9) 8 Do calculations based on Graham’s law. (Section 6.10) EBгeHий XapиTOHOB/iStock/Getty Images Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. The States of Matter 165 IF YOU LIVE in an area that has cold winters, you have probably seen water in the three different forms used to categorize the states in which matter occurs. On a cold day, you can usually find solid water (ice) floating in a pool of cold liquid water, and at the same time you can see a small cloud of tiny water droplets that forms when gaseous water condenses as you exhale into the cold air. Most matter is not as easily observed in all three states as the water in the preceding example. In fact, most matter is classified as a solid, a liquid, or a gas on the basis of the form in which it is commonly observed. However, according to Section 4.11, the state of a substance depends on temperature. You will see in this chapter that the state also de- pends on pressure. Therefore, when a substance is classified as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, we are usually simply stating its form under normal atmospheric pressure and at a tem- perature near 25°C.

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  States of Matter, States of Mind

  • Allan F.M. Barton(Author)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 1

  States of Matter

  Some familiar materials like hydrogen are presumably as old as time itself. The ‘Big Bang’ model for the origin of the Universe proposes hydrogen as the main initial product. On the other hand, some old materials may still appear novel, like the ‘fullerenes’1 † . Fullerenes are ‘new’ forms of carbon, which have been around in coal deposits much longer than humans have, but chemists and physicists have only just noticed them.

  Even more exciting, some materials that chemists and physicists are making have probably never existed in the Universe before. Also, we have access to ultra-low temperatures, much closer to ‘absolute zero’ than could have existed naturally in the Universe, where the background temperature is three kelvin (minus 270 degrees Celsius)2 . A temperature of exactly zero kelvin, absolute zero, is unattainable, but with the appropriate technology we can get as close to it as we wish. Microkelvin temperatures (only a millionth of a degree from absolute zero) are routinely available, and we can even achieve temperatures a thousand times closer to absolute zero than this, ‘nanokelvin’ levels3 .

  In trying to answer the questions ‘What are things made of, and what holds them together?’ we usually classify the numerous materials into various ‘States of Matter’.

  The word ‘material’ usually suggests something useful or substantial or practical while ‘matter’ implies a more theoretical and fundamental point of view. However, convention rather than logic determines some of the word usages. We talk about a ‘state of matter’, not a ‘state of material’ but say ‘materials science’ rather than ‘matter science’.

  How many States of Matter are there? Some of us would say just three: ‘solids’, ‘liquids’ and ‘gases’. Some would include ‘plasmas’ as a fourth state of matter4

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  Fundamentals of Fragrance Chemistry

  • Charles S. Sell(Author)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-VCH

    (Publisher)

  4 States of Matter

  Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. We learned the basic macroscopic differences between them during childhood, but now we need to understand what is happening at the molecular level that causes the properties with which we are all so familiar.

  Solids

  In the solid state, matter retains its physical shape, unless of course it is subjected to a force sufficient to deform it. A piece of iron has a shape that it retains even if it is moved or placed in a container. It is a typical solid, and we all understand this. The reason that the iron retains its shape is that its atoms are all connected to each other by forces that hold them in place and maintain the distances between them within well‐defined limits. In the case of a block of iron, the forces are actually the chemical bonds between the iron atoms. In the case of an ionic solid such as a salt, the components of the solid are not atoms but ions. The forces holding them together are therefore electrostatic rather than chemical bonds. Since the ions carry electrical charges, these electrostatic forces

  are relatively strong. If we take common salt as an example, the ions are those of sodium and chlorine, positive sodium cations and negative chloride anions. The way these are held together on the molecular scale determines the shape of the crystals on the macroscopic scale. If you look at crystals of table salt, you will see that they are basically cubic in shape as the sodium and chloride ions pack together in a simple cubic lattice. Each sodium ion

  is surrounded by six chloride ions, equidistant in three‐dimensional space, and equally, each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. This arrangement gives a regular cubic crystal lattice as shown in Figure

  4.1

  . Figure

  4.1

  a shows part of a single plane in the crystal. For clarity, the ions in front of the plane of the paper and those behind it are not shown.

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  Engineering Materials Science

  Properties, Uses, Degradation, Remediation

  • H McArthur, D Spalding(Authors)
  • 2004(Publication Date)
  • Woodhead Publishing

    (Publisher)

  2 States of Matter AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS 2.1 INTRODUCTION There are three States of Matter, a gas or vapour, a liquid (the most common one being water) and a solid (which may be amorphous or crystalline). These three states (or phases) are shown by water as the solid ice, the liquid water and as the vapour steam. In this Chapter we focus on water, as this compound is responsible for a wide range of building defects and deterioration mechanisms (Chapters Sand 6). 2.2GASES Gas molecules exlubit constant translocational movement (visualised as billiard balls colliding) and fill the available volume. Gas molecules are modelled as having principally translocational kinetic energy and a relatively small amount ofvibrational kinetic energy (movement which stretches the interatomic bonds, e.g, Cl-Cl, 0-0, etc.). An increase in temperature increases the translocational kinetic energy to a greater extent than the vibrational kinetic energy. A decrease in temperature results in the molecules of a gas coming into closer proximity, so that bonding can occur and the gas (water vapour) condenses to form a liquid. 2.2.1 Ideal Gas Laws If one mole of a gas is confined in volume V at temperature T, the pressure exerted by the gas, p, obeys the relationship pV =RT, where R is the universal gas constant(= 8414 J/kmol.K) and Tis absolute temperature (K). For n moles of the gas, pV = nRT, where n = m!M and mis the mass of the gas of molecular weight M. This equation is the equation of state of a perfect gas, also known as the ideal ( perfect) gas law. 2.2.2 Fundamental Kinetic Theory Equation for a Gas The kinetic energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called the kinetic energy of the body. Suppose a gas molecule of mass m moving with velocity u is bought to rest in a distance s by a constant retarding force F (Figure 2.1 a). The original kinetic energy of the gas molecule is equal to Fs, and this must therefore be the work done in bringing the molecule to rest.

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  200 Science Investigations for Young Students

  Practical Activities for Science 5 - 11

  • Martin Wenham(Author)
  • 2000(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications Ltd

    (Publisher)

  6

  States of Matter and Physical Change

   

  6.1: Solids, liquids and gases

  Most materials and objects which children encounter in everyday life are fairly obviously in one of three States of Matter: solid, liquid or gas. Observing materials to find out how they are classified in this way is an essential preliminary to investigating changes between the three states and ways in which they may be brought about. The three States of Matter are sometimes written or spoken about as if there were always sharp distinctions between them; but particularly between the solid and liquid states the distinction is not always clear (Activity 6.2.2 ) and even when it is, it may not appear to be (Activity 6.1.2 ).

  Activity 6.1.1

  Distinguishing solids from liquids

  Equipment and materials: A range of (unlabelled) solid objects in a variety of materials, e.g. wood, stone, rubber (elastic bands), paper, modelling clay, plastics, metals. A range of liquids in labelled screw-top jars or bottles with tops sealed on, e.g. water, vegetable oil, thick sugar syrup, PVA glue; disposable cup; dropper; plastic or metal tray.

   

  • From all the objects in front of you, pick out the bottles or jars with liquids in them. Put them on one side to look at later.
  • Look at the objects which are left. Try to identify the materials of which they are made.
  • Try to change the shape of these objects by bending, pulling, squashing and twisting them in your hands. Do not break any of the objects: just find out if you can make them change shape.
    • Are these objects solid or liquid? (They are solid.) Are they all solid? (Yes.) Are some more solid than others?

  Children may mistakenly answer ‘Yes’ to the last question because they may equate solidity with rigidity or hardness and think that soft, squashy and stretchy materials like modelling clay and elastic bands are less solid than hard materials such as metal or stone.

   

  • What properties do all these objects have which makes us call them ‘solid’?

  This may need some discussion. The scientific view is that solids maintain their shape without support, although these shapes can be changed by applying forces to them. As children might put it, solids ‘have their own shape’ and ‘stand up on their own’; but there are solid materials which need further investigation to find out how they behave (Activity 6.1.2

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  State of Matter

  • (Author)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • College Publishing House

    (Publisher)

  The materials used in solar cells tend to have the property of preferentially absorbing the wavelengths of solar light that reach the earth surface. However, some solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth's atmosphere as well. 2. Liquid Liquid is one of the three classical States of Matter. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container. Some liquids resist compression, while others can be compressed. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than in a gas. Therefore, liquid and solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow, they are both called fluids. ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ The formation of a spherical droplet of liquid water minimizes the surface area, which is the natural result of surface tension in liquids. Introduction Liquid is one of the three primary States of Matter, with the others being solid and gas. A liquid is a fluid. Unlike a solid, the molecules in a liquid have a much greater freedom to move. The forces that bind the molecules together in a solid are only temporary in a liquid, allowing a liquid to flow while a solid remains rigid. A liquid, like a gas, displays the properties of a fluid. A liquid can flow, assume the shape of a container, and, if placed in a sealed container, will distribute applied pressure evenly to every surface in the container. Unlike a gas, a liquid may not always mix readily with another liquid, will not always fill every space in the container, forming its own surface, and will not compress significantly, except under extremely high pressures. These properties make a liquid suitable for applications such as hydraulics.

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  Introductory Chemistry

  An Active Learning Approach

  • Mark Cracolice, Edward Peters, Mark Cracolice(Authors)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  48 Chapter 2 Matter and Energy Concept-Linking Exercises Write a brief description of the relationships among each of the following groups of terms or phrases. Answers to the Concept-Linking Exercises are given at the end of the chapter. Example: Natural sciences, physical sciences, biological sciences, chemistry, physics, botany, zoology. Solution: The natural sciences can be divided into two general catego- ries: physical sciences (the study of matter and energy) and biological sciences (the study of living organisms). Botany and zoology are bio- logical sciences. Physics and chemistry are physical sciences, although chemistry overlaps the biological sciences in the fields of biochemistry, biological chemistry, and chemical biology. 1. Matter, state of matter, kinetic molecular theory, gas, liquid, solid 2. Homogeneous, heterogeneous, pure substance, mixture 3. Element, compound, atom, molecule 4. Physical property, physical change, chemical property, chemical change 5. Conservation of mass, conservation of energy, conservation of mass and energy 6. Energy, kinetic energy, potential energy, endothermic change, exothermic change Small-Group Discussion Questions Small-Group Discussion Questions are for group work, either in class or under the guidance of a leader during a discussion section. 1. A model often is simpler than the natural phenomenon that it represents. How is this an advantage for thinking about matter? How is it a disadvantage? 2. Viscosity is defined as the resistance of a substance to flow. Explain why each state of matter either does or does not have the property of viscosity. How do you suppose viscosity occurs at the particulate level? 3. Describe as many chemical and physical changes and properties as possible that are given in, or that you can deduce from, the following: At the end of a day of hiking in the mountains, you set up camp. You gather dry sticks and logs to build a fire, and you light the fire with a match.

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  Conceiving Nature after Aristotle, Kant, and Hegel

  The Philosopher's Guide to the Universe

  • Richard Dien Winfield(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Palgrave Macmillan

    (Publisher)

  Before tackling these questions, it is worth taking note of some empirical information concerning the States of Matter. It is commonly estimated that in our and other solar systems, 99.9% of the matter is in the form of plasma, whereas less than 0.1% is in gaseous, liquid, or solid form. Plasma seems to be the overwhelmingly dominant form of matter, perhaps reflecting how stars achieve thermonuclear ignition by having a mass much greater than that of dark bodies. 8 The Physical States of Matter 235 Plasma is commonly characterized as gas that has undergone ioni- zation. Ionization involves matter that contains electrically charged factors, that is polar particles or force fields that repel like and attract unlike counterparts with electro-magnetic force. When gas is ionized some of its electrically charged particles are stripped off, leaving the gas with a charge, even if the sum total of positive and negative charges remains equal. Through ionization these opposing charges no longer remain cohabiting a gas; instead, some have been separated off. In this empirical account, plasma, as a form of matter, evidently depends upon polar electromagnetic charges. Aristotle will distinguish the elements, by contrast, without invoking the specific polarity of electric charge. He will, however, invoke other physical contraries to distinguish the elements and comprehend how they get transformed into one another. Aristotle’s account is important to consider in seeing how the philosophy of nature can advance between conceiving locomotion to address qualitative physical transformations. 8.2 The Lessons of Aristotle’s Account of the Elements Let us first examine Aristotle’s account of the elements in respect to the basic challenge of a qualitative physics, transcending the limits of pure mechanics.

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  Basic Physical Chemistry

  The Route to Understanding

  • E Brian Smith(Author)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • ICP

    (Publisher)

  9 The States of Matter 9.1 Gases, liquids and solids Matter can exist in many forms but, most commonly, we identify three distinct states: gas, liquid and solid. The state with the lowest Gibbs free energy is the stable form of matter at any particular temperature. At low temperatures, the solid with the most negative energy is the most stable form. At high temperatures, the gaseous state with the maximum randomness prevails. At intermediate temperatures, the liquid state has the lowest free energy. If the Gibbs free energy is plotted against the temperature at constant pressure, since d G = V d P − S d T , the slopes of the lines are (∂G/∂T) P = − S . The gaseous phase with the highest entropy has the largest negative slope and will have the lowest free energy at high temperatures (Fig. 9.1). The solid phase with the lowest slope has the lowest free energy at low temperatures. The transition from one phase to another occurs where the lines intersect and where the free energies are equal. Then, G = 0 and H = TS , giving, at the melting point of the solid, fus S = fus H T fus and, at the boiling point of the liquid, vap S = vap H T vap . We can represent the equilibrium of the phases as a function of temperature and pressure as shown in Fig. 9.2 for the phase equilibria in water. Such diagrams are called phase diagrams . The lines represent the pressures and temperatures at which two phases are in equilibrium. The line AB represents the vapour pressure of liquid water and AC gives the vapour pressure of ice. AD is the melting curve on which the solid and liquid are at equilibrium. The point where all three curves meet, A, is called the triple point , which, for water, is at 273.16 K and 10.61 kPa (4.58 mm Hg) pressure, the only pressure and temperature at which the three phases can co-exist in equilibrium. 199 200 | Basic Physical Chemistry G T T fus T vap Solid Liquid Gas Fig.

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