Individual Differences in Stress

12 Key excerpts on "Individual Differences in Stress"

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  Performance Under Stress

  • James L. Szalma, James L Szalma, Peter A A Hancock, James L Szalma, Peter A A Hancock(Authors)
  • 2018(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 16 Individual Differences in Stress Reaction James L. Szalma Introduction Research in individual differences in performance has a long history, dating to the emergence of psychology and psychometrics itself (e.g., Cattell, Galton; see Boring, 1950). However, there has been a disconnect between this tradition and that of experimental psychology (Cronbach, 1957). As the origins of human factors and human performance research were in applications of experimental psychology, the disconnect manifested in relatively limited scope of individual differences research in human factors and ergonomics. At the same time, modern emphasis on human-centered design raises questions regarding how the characteristics of the human interact with those of the interface/task to influence system performance and operator well-being. In this chapter I hope to demonstrate that a synthesis of Cronbach’s two disciplines (a rapprochement?) is possible and of great importance for understanding performance under stress, and that an integrated framework, based on cognitive science approaches, already exists and can be applied to human factors research and design. I also discuss the implications of an individual differences approach for theories of stress and performance and summarize empirical studies applying this perspective to the evaluation of factors that influence performance, workload, and stress response in cognitive and perceptual tasks. Finally, future directions for application of an individual differences perspective to human factors research on performance under stress are discussed. Group and individual differences: Different perspectives on the same problem Experimental and human factors psychologists have traditionally treated variation in behavior across participants as error variance or “nuisance” variables (e.g., Kirk, 1995).

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  Integrative Organismal Biology

  • Lynn B. Martin, Cameron K. Ghalambor, H. Arthur Woods(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 12 Developmental Plasticity of Individual Variation in Stress Responses Haruka Wada Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA Introduction How an individual responds to physical, physiological, and psychological challenges is fundamental to life. Animals have evolved both specific and nonspecific organismal responses to escape from and adjust to new environments and overcome challenges. These responses, called stress responses (Box 12.1), vary greatly among species and populations as well as between individuals (Guimont & Wynne-Edwards 2006; Schrandt & Lema 2011). They are generally repeatable within individuals across time (Wada et al. 2008; Rensel & Schoech 2011), but the origins and consequences of such individual differences are not well understood. The external environment is constantly in flux, and internal physiological demands also change with physical activity and life history stages. Thus the first question to answer is under what conditions a change in environment becomes a stressor. Interestingly, even in identical environments, individuals at the same life history stage, e.g., lactation, hibernation, or migration, show different stress responses. This leads to the second question; where does the individual variation come from? Box 12.1 Definition of Components of Stress The word “stress” has been used in everyday language as well as in range of disciplines from engineering to medicine, causing confusion and debate over the definitions. Stress at times refers to a stimulus, yet it also can refer to a state, or consequences of such stimuli or states (see Romero et al. 2009; Koolhaas et al. 2011 for discussion). In most cases, stress tends to refer to something undesirable and harmful. In this chapter, I try to avoid references to stress at all, instead emphasizing stressors, stress responses and components and consequences thereof

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  Aviation Psychology and Human Factors

  • Monica Martinussen, David R. Hunter(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  8 Stress and Human Reactions

  An important part of psychology is the study of variations in how we think, feel, and react. Although it is important to be aware of such variations, there are a number of commonly shared patterns in terms of reactions, for example, to dramatic and stressful events. Hence, this chapter discusses both individual differences in personality and mental health and reactions to everyday stress and more significant incidents. Finally, this chapter investigates common psychological reactions in passengers.

  8.1Personality and Individual Differences

  Personality is a sweeping construct. It may be defined broadly as every internal factor that contributes to consistent behavior in different situations, or, narrowly, as encompassing only emotions and motivation. For a long time, the psychology community has been engaged in discussions on how many personality traits or dimensions are necessary to describe someone, as outlined in Chapter 4 . The most widely used model today is the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality, which includes extraversion , agreeableness , conscientiousness , neuroticism , and openness to experience (Costa and McCrae 1997). Some measures use emotional stability instead of neuroticism . In other words, the positive end of the scale is applied.

  Most techniques for personality characteristic measurements use statements combined with a point scale ranging from one to five (or, in some cases, seven), to which subjects note their level of agreement. Combinations of positively and negatively phrased statements are often used for the different dimensions. For example, “I am often anxious” may be used instead of “I am never anxious.”

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  The Role of Individual Differences in Occupational Stress and Well Being

  • Pamela L. Perrewé, Daniel C. Ganster(Authors)
  • 2011(Publication Date)
  • Emerald Group Publishing Limited

    (Publisher)

  CROSS-CULTURAL OCCUPATIONAL STRESS: AN INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PERSPECTIVE Chu-Hsiang (Daisy) Chang and Samantha K. Baard ABSTRACT Given the increasing global focus of many aspects of our society, researchers have taken significant steps in understanding the impact of culture on various psychological states. This review focuses on the stressor–strain relationships within the context of cross-cultural and cross-national studies. Using research findings from the United States as a baseline, we identify common and unique themes concerning the stressor–strain relationships between different countries, and clarify the differences between cross-national and cross-cultural studies. Further-more, we consider cross-cultural and cross-national occupational stress research from an individual differences perspective. We encourage future studies to adopt this perspective and carefully consider the implications of cultural values on occupational stress research at the individual, group, and country levels. The Role of Individual Differences in Occupational Stress and Well Being Research in Occupational Stress and Well Being, Volume 9, 265–303 Copyright r 2011 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 1479-3555/doi:10.1108/S1479-3555(2011)0000009011 265 Occupational stress refers to the process through which employees perceive, appraise, and respond to adverse or challenging job demands at work ( Frese & Zapf, 1988 ; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ). This definition is based on the transactional model ( Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ), and distinguishes between the stimulus and response elements of the stress process ( Jex, 1998 ). The first element, stressors, refers to situational stimuli that are potentially threatening or taxing and require adaptive responses from employees. Strains, on the other hand, refer to a wide variety of responses that employees may adopt when they encounter stressors.

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  Stress and Your Health

  From Vulnerability to Resilience

  • Hymie Anisman(Author)
  • 2015(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  One of the most predictable things about stressors concerns the wide differences that are evident among individuals when confronted by challenges. Some individuals are able to deal well with stressors and don’t fall apart even under the most stressful conditions, whereas others, when given the slightest opportunity, do the Henny-Penny thing, shouting to anyone that will listen that the sky is falling. Stressors obviously aren’t perceived in the same way by all people and they can understandably have very different effects across individuals. What’s viewed as very stressful by one person might be seen as a minor inconvenience by a second. Furthermore, even if individuals perceived the stressor similarly, they might be inclined to use different methods of dealing (coping) with stressors that aren’t equally effective. And, even if they use comparable coping methods, the neurobiological impact of the stressor might differ between these individuals. Given the diversity of psychological, emotional, cognitive and biological responses that exist among us, some individuals will succumb to the adverse effects of stressors, whereas the same experiences will have only a modest impact on others.

  Vulnerability and resilience

  Vulnerability and resilience are sometimes incorrectly seen as being at opposite ends of a continuum. In the context of illness or in dealing with stressors, vulnerability typically refers to the susceptibility of a person, group, or even a whole society to disturbances that develop in response to particular environmental or social challenges. Resilience, in contrast, refers to the ability or disposition to recover readily from illness, but in the context we’re dealing with, it can also be taken to mean that an individual has the capacity to limit or preclude the detrimental effects of a stressor.

  Vulnerability is in a sense easy to understand, and there are a great many factors that can favor the development of illness. Genetic or poor early life experiences, the wrong hormonal or other chemical mix, lousy parenting, or just repeated encounters with nasty events might cumulatively influence our vulnerability to illness. In contrast, it’s more difficult to define what factors make us resilient in the face of multiple challenges that can harm us. In a way, it’s reminiscent of the contrast concerning the difficulty of creating an elegant and exciting piece of art, and how simple it is to damage it by anybody with the intent to do so.

  Most of us have heard of the person who seems perfectly healthy, but who then dies unexpectedly. It required only a single malfunction, an aneurysm or a pulmonary embolism, to undo all that was “healthy” about that individual. Ordinarily, stressors affect numerous biological systems concurrently or sequentially, essentially placing a load on these systems. As strong as our defensive systems might be, if the load is heavy enough then the weakest link supporting these systems might give way, culminating in a pathological condition. For one person it may be the heart, for another it may be aspects of the brain or particular hormonal systems. For an individual to be resilient it might be necessary for weak links to be absent, but let’s face it, with enough of a load, any weaknesses that are present will emerge. To limit these outcomes it might be necessary to find ways of diminishing the load or, failing this, to have back-up systems in place that compensate when particular links fail.

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  Eating Disorders in Women and Children

  Prevention, Stress Management, and Treatment, Second Edition

  • Kristin Goodheart, James R. Clopton, Jacalyn J. Robert-McComb, Kristin Goodheart, James R. Clopton, Jacalyn J. Robert-McComb(Authors)
  • 2011(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  As indicated by the previous definitions, stressors are typi-cally considered to be aspects of the environment, but stressors could also be internal, such as the demands associated with wanting to be well-liked by others. It is important to remember that stress can be an adaptive response to stressors or demands that help us deal more effectively with problems we encounter. Just as experiencing the demands associated with lifting weights helps our muscles to become stronger, experiencing stressors in various situations can help us grow stronger psycholog-ically (Haan 1993). Most people function best under moderate levels of stress (Yerkes and Dodson 1908). However, under conditions of persistent, high stress, people can develop a variety of damag-ing physical and psychological symptoms (Selye 1993). Early research explored the relationship between stressful events and individual distress but found that stressful events accounted for only 10% of the changes in distress (Holahan et al. 1996). Obviously, there are other factors that must be considered when examining the roots of human emo-tional and physical distress, and some researchers have hypothesized that the coping behaviors of an individual play a central role in determining the amount of distress he or she experiences. In their classic text on stress and coping, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) defined coping as “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or inter-nal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person.” Lazarus and Folkman noted that coping is limited to stressors that are consciously perceived by individuals as being especially stressful. Not everyone agrees with Lazarus and Folkman’s conceptualization of coping as involving “constantly changing” behaviors, however, and there is some evidence to sug-gest that coping behaviors are more stable than Lazarus and Folkman theorized (Amirkhan 1994; Parkes 1994).

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  Organizational Stress

  A Review and Critique of Theory, Research, and Applications

  • Cary L. Cooper, Philip J. Dewe, Michael P. O'Driscoll, Michael P. O′Driscoll(Authors)
  • 2001(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications, Inc

    (Publisher)

  One difficulty in conducting research on stress is that wide discrepancies exist in the way that stress is defined and operationalized. For instance, the concept of stress has variously been defined as both an independent and a dependent variable (Cox, 1985) and as a “process.” This confusion over terminology is compounded by the broad application of the stress concept in medical, behavioral, and social science research over the past 50 to 60 years. Each discipline has investigated stress from its own unique perspective, adopting as a guideline either a stimulus-based model (stress as the “independent” variable) or a response-based model (stress as the “dependent” variable). The approach taken is dictated by the objectives of the research and the intended action resulting from the findings. What is clear from the different ways in which stress has been defined is that there has been considerable debate and discussion as to what is really meant by stress.

  As we discuss in this chapter, the importance of this debate can be established by way of two points. First, theoretical definitions of concepts determine the nature and direction of research, as well as the possible explanations that can be proffered for research findings. Definitions provide researchers with theoretical boundaries that need to be constantly extended and reviewed to ensure that what is being defined reflects the nature of the experience itself (Newton, 1995). Second, the definitional debate gives a sense of time and historical perspective, shedding light on why a certain focus or approach prevails, and a mechanism for considering the explanatory potential of current research.

  Almost all research on stress begins by pointing to the difficulties associated with and the confusion surrounding the way in which the term stress

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  Handbook of Stress Medicine and Health

  • Athel Cornish-Bowden, Cary Cooper(Authors)
  • 2004(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  So, the fi eld converges, in practice, on a response de fi nition of stress. In our view, this is perfectly reasonable: when certain conditions are ful fi lled, an individual is in a state of stress. What triggered that response is of no concern for the issue of what de fi nes stress. It is, of course, important with regard to the issue of modeling the stress process. This, of course, leaves the problem of circularity: Is it possible to identify factors in the environment that can be classi fi ed as stressors, given the enormous interindi-vidual differences typically found? We think yes — but such a de fi nition must not specify that a stressor leads to stress for each and every individual on all occasions . Rather, stressors can be de fi ned probabilistically, that is, in terms of an increased 4 Handbook of Stress Medicine and Health, Second Edition likelihood of stress reactions, similar to the concept of risk factors in epidemiology. We will come back to this issue when we discuss the individual and social meaning of stress below in the section entitled “In the Eye of the Beholder? Social and Individual Meaning.” V ALENCE OF THE S TRESS E XPERIENCE : N EGATIVE VS . N EUTRAL D EFINITION Stress as Negative vs. Positive Experience A second de fi nitional controversy that runs through the stress fi eld is the issue of negative vs. neutral concepts of stress. Selye de fi nes stress as the reaction of the organism to any demand (Selye, 1993, p. 7), thus implying that the demand might be perceived qualitatively as positive or negative, attractive or unattractive, pleasant or unpleasant. Only intensity is important in this concept, whereas it is neutral with regard to the quality of the experience involved. Selye’s legacy within the stress fi eld is still strong, especially in the medical and biological sciences (cf. Sapolsky, 1998).

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  Stress and Hypertension

  Examining the Relation between Psychological Stress and High Blood Pressure

  • Kevin T. Larkin(Author)
  • 2008(Publication Date)
  • Yale University Press

    (Publisher)

  For example, exposure to stressful life events, jobs, or cultures leads to acute elevations in blood pressure among some individuals, whereas other individuals ex- posed to identical stressful life events, jobs, or cultures maintain nor- mal blood pressure responses. A wide array of individual difference variables has been examined that have been hypothesized to influence the magnitude and pattern of physiological stress responding, includ- ing constitutional parameters (like gender or ethnicity) and psychoso- cial characteristics (like coping skills, personality, and social support). These variables cannot technically be considered candidates for medi- ating the stress–hypertension relation in the model presented in Figure 4.1, because they are not elicited by stress; rather, they represent inde- pendent factors that are present regardless of whether an individual is exposed to stressful stimuli or not. For example, stress does not lead to altered constitutional characteristics like a change in gender or ethnic- ity. Likewise, personality and related trait-like phenomena are not typ- ically influenced by the sudden onset of an environmental stressor. Nevertheless, these variables have been hypothesized to play a role in the etiology of essential hypertension, perhaps through their associa- tion with the acute response to environmental stress. This chapter will examine evidence for potential individual dif- ference variables pertaining to constitutional and lifestyle factors that influence both the stress–hypertension relation and the stress–cardio- vascular reactivity relation. These individual difference parameters may also predict risk for hypertension independently.

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  Organizational Stress

  • J. Cranwell-Ward, A. Abbey(Authors)
  • 2005(Publication Date)
  • Palgrave Macmillan

    (Publisher)

  PART V Understanding and Dealing with Stress An Individual Perspective 21 Introduction Organizations are made up of individuals, so to manage organizational stress as effectively as possible, each individual needs to learn how best to manage stress. Of course, each employee has a unique personality, outlook, responsi- bilities, and set of circumstances, so each person’s solution to pressure and stress will be quite different. Part V was written largely to speak to the indiv- idual reader, but the explanations and suggestions will also help managers and colleagues to understand and help others. Part V also presents a case for giving all employees the benefits of learning about coping strategies for stress through a training program. Understanding what stress is and the effects it has is an important starting point for anyone in managing stress. Chapter 22 discusses the symptoms of stress that many people feel, but would not necessarily be obvious to the outside world. It explains how those symptoms are linked to the physiology of stress and suggests how individuals could assess stress in themselves. Chapter 23 tackles the question of whose responsibility it is to manage stress levels and suggests how one can feel more in control. Chapters 24 and Chapter 25 cover a large range of individual coping strategies for stress. Nearly all coping strategies for stress will fall into one of four broad categories: 1. Managing and improving personal perception 2. Managing emotions and increasing emotional energy 3. Building physical and mental resilience 4. Acceptance of circumstances and ability to be peaceful. Once an individual decides on a set of strategies, those strategies must be put into action, and that is where many people go wrong in managing their own stress levels. They know what it is they should be doing, but they do not do it. Chapter 26 will look at some of the excuses, and real reasons, for failing to look after one’s self and manage stress effectively.

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  Health Psychology

  Biopsychosocial Interactions

  • Edward P. Sarafino, Timothy W. Smith, David B. King, Anita De Longis(Authors)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  As a summary of the role of psychosocial modifiers of stress, we have seen that social support, personal control, various personality strengths, and aspects of the Type A and B behaviour patterns are factors that can modify the impact of stress on health. High levels of social support, personal control, and related personality traits are generally associated with reduced stress and resulting illnesses; Type A behaviour, especially the anger/hostility component, is associated with increased stress and How Stress Affects Health 131 cardiovascular illness. The remainder of this chapter examines health problems that are affected by people’s experience of stress. We begin by considering how stress leads to illness. How Stress Affects Health Why does stress lead to illnesses in some individuals, but not others? One answer: other factors influence the effects of stress. This idea forms the basis of the diathesis- stress model, the view that people’s vulnerability to a physical or psychological disorder depends on the interplay of their predisposition to the disorder (the diathesis) and the amount of stress they experience (Steptoe & Ayers, 2004). The predisposition can re- sult from organic structure and functioning, often genetically determined, or from prior environmental conditions, such as living in a community that promotes tobacco use. For example, chronically high levels of stress are especially likely to lead to CHD if the person’s body produces high levels of cholesterol; or students are likely to catch cold around final exams week if their immune system functioning is impaired. This concept may explain why not all individuals in the following experiment caught a cold. Researchers conducted an interesting experiment; they gave people nasal drops that contained a “common cold” virus or a placebo solution and then quarantined them to check for infection and cold symptoms (Cohen, Tyrrell, & Smith, 1991).

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  Antioxidants in Food, Vitamins and Supplements

  Prevention and Treatment of Disease

  • Amitava Dasgupta, Kimberly Klein(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Elsevier

    (Publisher)

  Box 6.1 .

  Box 6.1 Signs and Symptoms of Significant Stress

  Short-Term Stress

   Increased blood pressure

   Increased heart rate

   Tension headache

   Anxiety attack

   Back pain

   Diarrhea

   Upset stomach

  Long-Term Stress

   Unhealthy eating pattern and weight gain/weight loss

   Trouble sleeping, including onset of insomnia

   Fatigue

   Difficulty with relationships

   Onset of depression, which may lead to major depression or psychiatric illness

  Leeming [1] proposed an interesting hypothesis suggesting that the human race carries an inherited stress response from early human evolution in the hot tropical climate of Africa. Early human diet in Africa was rich in vitamin C but minimal in sodium, whereas present-day intake of high sodium is incompatible with homeostasis of the human body, especially when subjected to any form of stress. The climatic conditions of Europe and North America are ill suited to experience stress because it appears that a constituent part of the bodily stress response is designed to be effective in a hot tropical climate in which stress can be accompanied by sweating of the overheated body through thermoregulation. Without low sodium intake and overheating of the body as a response to stress followed by sweating, in modern-day life, stress can result in lower immune function and reduced ability of the body to resist disease. It is well documented in the medical literature that prolonged psychological stress is linked to many diseases (Box 6.2 ). The central link between prolonged psychological stress and various diseases, including premature aging, is probably related to chronic elevation of cortisol and other stress hormones. Chronic stress also increases oxidative stress in the human body, which plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many diseases linked to chronic psychological stress. In one study, it was observed that plasma malondialdehyde (lipid peroxidation marker) was directly correlated with the severity of emotional stress experienced by healthy subjects [2] . Sivonova et al . [3]

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