Parenting Styles

12 Key excerpts on "Parenting Styles"

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  Families and Social Change in the Gulf Region

  • Jennifer E. Lansford, Anis Ben Brik, Abdallah M. Badahdah, Jennifer E. Lansford, Anis Ben Brik, Abdallah M. Badahdah(Authors)
  • 2020(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  Parenting style is “the manner in which parents treat, communicate with, discipline, monitor, and support their children” (Slicker, Picklesmier, Guzak, & Fuller, 2005, p. 228). The first recorded use of the concept of ‘Parenting Styles’ was by Baumrind (1971), who is known as the pioneer researcher in Parenting Styles. Baumrind delineated two key dimensions in parents’ behaviour: demandingness and responsiveness. Demandingness tends to be used to refer to the degree of control practised by parents over their children (e.g., setting strict rules, demands, and limits). Responsiveness refers to the degree of warmth, supportiveness, and acceptance (Baumrind, 1971). These two dimensions were illustrated in Baumrind’s original framework as a 2 × 2 matrix, with one axis represented by the demandingness dimension and the other axis represented by the responsiveness dimension. Hence, four Parenting Styles have been reported, namely authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and neglectful (Baumrind, 1991).

  Authoritarian parenting (high demanding and low responsiveness) refers to autocratic parents who use harsh punishment, set strict rules, control their children’s behaviours, expect to be obeyed without negotiation, and curb children’s autonomy. However, authoritative parents (high demanding and high responsiveness) are characterized by encouraging positive conversations with their children and providing them with clear explanations of their rules and parental controls. Although they value warmth, supportiveness, and autonomy, authoritative parents confirm discipline and use firm control while taking into consideration their children’s needs and interests. Permissiveness (low demanding and high responsiveness) is described as non-punitive parenting. Permissive parents show a high degree of warmth and affection towards their children. They provide children with few demands, allowing children to control their own behaviours without receiving any form of parental guidance, discipline, or regulations. Neglectful parenting, also known as uninvolved parenting, is a style described by the lack of both dimensions (low demandingness and low responsiveness). In other words, neglectful parents are neither accepting of nor demanding towards their children. They are indifferent and completely dismissive (Baumrind, 1967, 1971, 1991, 2005).

  The Importance of Parenting Styles

  Much work on the contribution of Parenting Styles to child development has been carried out since the middle of the 20th century. The findings of previous literature suggest that authoritative parenting has an optimal influence on positive child outcomes, including academic achievement and school performance (Cohen & Rice, 1997; Kaisa, Hakan, & Jari-erik, 2000; Newman et al., 2015), academic achievement identity (Aldhafri & Al-Harthy, 2016), achievement goal orientation (Aldhafri & Al Odeh, in press), self-esteem (Chan & Koo, 2011; Martínez & García, 2007; Pinquart & Gerke, 2019), self-efficacy (Aldhafri, 2011; Qazi, 2009; Tam, Chong, Kadirvelu, & Khoo, 2012), psychological adjustment (Aldhafri, 2016; Aljahwari & Aldhafri, 2020), mental health (Abubakar, van de Vijver, Suryani, Handayani, & Pandia, 2015; Dwairy et al., 2006), reduction of violence (Spano, Rivera, & Bolland, 2011), and high cognitive competencies (Rudasill, Adelson, Callahan, Houlihan, & Keizer, 2013). There is, to some extent, general agreement on the negative impact of authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful parenting on children’s outcomes and development (Chen, 2015; Gonzalez, Holbein, & Quilter, 2002; Hoskins, 2014; Ren & Edwards, 2015). Children who perceive their parents as highly strict, lenient, or dismissive show high levels of school anxiety (Butnaru, 2016; Mellon & Moutavelis, 2011; Sagar & Lavalle, 2010), poor academic achievement (Dornbush, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987), maladjustment (Lamborn, Mounts, Steinberg, & Dornbusch, 1991), low self-esteem (Herz & Gullone, 1999), external locus of control (Qazi, 2009), and drug use and delinquency (Clausen, 1996). However, the findings of previous studies regarding the effect of each parenting style on child outcomes differ somewhat according to the cultural context.

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  Parenting in Youth Sport

  From Research to Practice

  • Nicholas Holt, Camilla Knight(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  In an attempt to merge Baumrind’s ‘configurational’ (i.e. typology) approach with earlier attempts to define parenting according to dimensions, Maccoby and Martin (1983) suggested that types of parenting style could more accurately be captured by considering two underlying dimensions: responsiveness (parents' provision of support in response to their children) and demandingness (parents' degree of control over their child). In a sense, Maccoby and Martin’s suggestions harked back to the original ‘dimensional’ approaches of the mid-1900s that we mentioned earlier. Maccoby and Martin argued that the use of the dimensions of responsiveness and demandingness should logically lead to a four-fold (rather than three-fold) typology of Parenting Styles: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglecting (essentially they separated Baumrind’s original permissive parenting style into indulgent and neglecting Parenting Styles). Applying the demandingness/responsiveness dimensions to the Parenting Styles, authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. Authoritarian parents are demanding but less responsive. Indulgent parents are responsive but not demanding (they are warm, accepting, and tolerant, but ‘indulge’ their children by making few demands on them and rarely punishing them). Neglecting parents are neither responsive nor demanding (they often simply neglect their parental responsibilities because they are more focused on themselves and their own needs).

  Building on these previous theoretical and conceptual developments, Darling and Steinberg (1993) presented an integrative contextual model to help further understand the processes through which Parenting Styles influence child development. They proposed parents' socialization goals and values as the starting point for their model. That is, the goals and values that parents hold toward socializing their children are critical determinants of parenting behavior. These socialization goals include parents' expectations for their children to acquire specific skills and behaviors (e.g. manners, social skills, and academic achievement) and more global qualities (e.g. curiosity, critical thinking, and independence). Parents convey their socialization goals to children through their parenting style and their parenting practices. Parenting style is defined as a “constellation of attitudes toward the child that are communicated to the child and create an emotional climate in which the parent’s behaviors are expressed,” whereas parenting practices are “goal-directed behaviors through which parents perform their parental duties” (Darling and Steinberg, 1993, p. 488).

  Parenting Styles and parenting practices result, in part, from parents' goals, and they are proposed to influence child development in different ways. That is, parenting practices have a direct effect on the development of children’s behaviors — these parenting practices are the mechanisms by which parents directly help their children attain their (parents') socialization goals. Parenting Styles have an indirect relationship with developmental outcomes. More specifically, parenting style “alters the parents' capacity to socialize their children by changing the effectiveness of parenting practices” (Darling and Steinberg, 1993, p. 493). Parenting practices can best be understood as operating in fairly distinct domains, such as those relating to academics or sport. For example, parents may use certain practices in sport (e.g. cheering a goal) that they clearly would not use in academic settings.

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  Family Factors and the Educational Success of Children

  • William Jeynes(Author)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Taylor & Francis

    (Publisher)

  A meta-analysis examined the relationship between parental involvement and the academic achievement of urban elementary school children (Jeynes, 2005). Findings for academic achievement among urban students at the elementary level revealed a strong correlation with parental involvement; however, the meta-analysis did not distinguish between the dimensions of parenting style. The multifaceted nature of research on parenting style supports the need to understand its influence on student achievement. The information on parenting style also needs clarification. For example, some researchers have found that parents and their adolescents can differ in their perception of parenting style and that neither parenting style nor measures of parents’ beliefs in training their children are associated with student self-reports of school achievement (McBride-Chang & Chang, 1998; Chao, 1994).

  Parental Control

  The control exerted by parents impacts the style of parenting. The research literature investigating the nature and effects of parental control of children and adolescents is broad and complex; therefore, it is important to provide some differentiation between behavioral control and psychological control. Behavioral control is thought to facilitate development by providing necessary supervision, whereas psychological control is seen as inhibiting development through an excess of control.

  Behavioral control. Family influence on children’s achievement is well established in the literature (e.g., Baumrind, 1978; Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994), and most researchers agree on the significant role of authoritative parenting style and active parental involvement in maximizing children’s academic success across grades, gender, and ethnic groups.

  Forty years ago Baumrind’s seminal studies of the socialization of competence (1966, 1967) concluded that theory-derived parent classification that resulted in certain parental control would generate different behaviors in children. Her theory-derived parent classification resulted in the original parenting style prototype: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive.

  According to Baumrind (1966) the permissive parent behaves in a “nonpunitive, acceptant and affirmative manner toward the child’s impulses, desires and actions” (1966, p. 889). There is an attempt by this parent to allow the child to regulate his/her own activities as much as possible and to avoid the exercise of control. The authoritarian parent “attempts to shape, control, and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of the child in accordance with a set standard of conduct” (1966, p. 890). The authoritarian parent values obedience and favors punitive, forceful measures to curb the child’s self-will. This parent does not encourage verbal give and take, and believes that the child should accept the parent’s word for what is right. The authoritative parent “encourages verbal give and take and shares with the child the reasoning behind the policy” (1966, p. 891). This parent enforces his/her own perspective as an adult, but recognizes the child’s individual interests and special ways.

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  Child Psychology

  Development in a Changing Society

  • Robin Harwood, Scott A. Miller, Ross Vasta(Authors)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  In contrast, the authoritarian parenting style couples high control with low warmth. Authoritarian parents are very demanding. They exercise strong control over their children’s behavior, and they tend to enforce their demands with threats and harsh punishment. They display little warmth or affection toward the child. The permissive parenting style repre- sents a third possible combination of the two dimensions. Permissive parents are high in warmth but low in control. These parents are loving and emotionally sensitive but set few limits on behavior and provide little in the way of structure or predictability. Finally, the un- involved parenting style (also termed disengaged or neglectful parenting style) is the label for parents who are low on both dimensions. These parents set few limits on their children, but they also provide little in the way of attention, interest, or emotional support. The Baumrind approach has proved successful in identifying individual differences among parents across a range of different populations and child ages. As noted, however, the measurement of parental characteristics is usually just the first step in studies of par- enting. A further step is to determine how the variations in parenting affect children’s de- velopment.

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  Understanding Emotional Development

  Providing insight into human lives

  • Robert Lewis Wilson, Rachel Wilson(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  It is also possible for authoritative parents who explain things in detail to the child, and grant gradual autonomy, to put their own interests first and neglect those of the U N D E R S TA N D I N G E M O T I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T 142 child. This is not likely with this style but it can occur though one could then argue that if this happens the parents have not warmly accepted the child. Parenting Styles are a complex matter because like any typology few parents fall neatly into a distinct category and some parents can change their style of parenting over time. Styles of parenting reflect strengths and weakness in the care of children but in the end it is the loving relationship or lack thereof between the parent and child that really counts. This relationship must fully service infant needs and thereafter act first in the child’s interest as it introduces the child to the world. If it does these things it is good-enough and the style by which it operates is of secondary importance. There is a fourth parenting style. It is called the uninvolved style and entails no parental concern for the child’s needs and no interest by the parents in the child’s growth, control or autonomy. This style amounts to neglect, a category of child abuse. The parents who have this approach to parenthood are insensitive and will be psychologically unavailable for their children. Such a style is obviously not good-enough and will be a major influence in the lives of children who are unfor- tunate enough to suffer it. Our emphasis on the basic good-enough qualities of parenting helps to make sense of the recent criticism of parenting as the major influence in children’s lives. This emphasis allows us to both accept some of the criticism while not denying the immense importance of parenting especially when it is not good-enough. It is to this rejection of parenting as an effective force in the development of children that we now turn.

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  Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, Wellbeing in Children and Families

  • (Author)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  In the second part of this chapter we address the issue of meaning and the fact that the same parenting actions are interpreted differently by different children as well as differently by the same children at different points in time. We begin with a discussion of Parenting Styles and discipline techniques because these are the areas of research investigation from which considerable information about the importance of meaning has emerged.

  Parenting Styles and Discipline

  One of the most influential and productive approaches to the study of parenting has come from the work of Diana Baumrind (1967, 1971, 2012). Indeed, it is impressive that, more than 40 years later, researchers continue to use her classification of Parenting Styles as a way of labeling particular approaches to parenting, particularly parenting in what is described above as the control domain. Baumrind distinguished between authoritarian or rule-driven and harsh parenting, authoritative or firmly controlling but responsive parenting, and permissive or laissez-faire parenting, with each of these styles associated with its own particular set of socioemotional outcomes. Overall, it was the authoritative parenting style that predicted the best outcomes, including acceptance of parental directives. In elaborations of Baumrind's approach, researchers more recently have distinguished between psychological and behavioral control, with the former entailing attempts to influence the child's emotional state (e.g., guilt induction) and the latter the setting and enforcement of reasonable rules for behavior. Psychological control is associated with internalizing problems such as depression and low self-esteem, whereas behavioral control is associated with reduced levels of antisocial behavior (Barber, 2002).

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  Adolescents, Families, and Social Development

  How Teens Construct Their Worlds

  • Judith G. Smetana(Author)
  • 2010(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  One approach to these concerns is to re-conceptualize Parenting Styles as broad contexts that foster different emotional climates in the family. This is the approach that Nancy Darling and Laurence Steinberg (1993) adopt. They propose that Parenting Styles create different psychological environments, which change the meaning of particular, isolated parenting practices. In their view, the same parenting practice could have different effects if parents endorsing a different parenting style deployed it. For instance, the same parenting practices in the emotional climate of authoritarian or of indulgent parenting may have different meanings for the child, and therefore have different consequences for adjustment. In a technical sense, then, Darling and Steinberg elaborate on Baumrind’s model so as to view Parenting Styles as changing (or moderating) the effects of different parenting practices on children’s adjustment. Their new model still embraces the notion of Parenting Styles, but also underscores the need to take into the picture the child’s interpretations of parents’ actions.

  Many scholars have expressed concerns about the usefulness of broad Parenting Styles, or parenting “traits.” Along with others (Grusec, Goodnow, & Kuczynski, 2000; Grusec & Goodnow, 1994; Turiel, 2005), Eleanor Maccoby (2007), one of the pioneers of psychological research on parenting and socialization, notes that the model does not take into consideration a myriad of factors, such as the characteristics of the child, the situation, the parents’ varying goals in different situations, and the children’s interpretations of their parents’ actions. Parenting Styles capture a great deal of information about parenting in a parsimonious and easily comprehensible way. Yet, as with the categories of individualism and collectivism, this parsimony may be achieved at the expense of specificity. We saw in Chapter 4 that children, adolescents, and adults have qualitatively different responses to different types of situations, including moral, conventional, personal, and prudential ones. The contexts in which these responses occur, the type of response, and who responds vary for different types of transgressions. In a similar vein, we can question whether parents have a consistent style of interaction across all situations. They may behave strictly, even harshly and angrily, when prudential concerns are at stake and they fear for their child’s safety. However, they may take time to reason and negotiate in a warm and responsive manner about other issues. In other words, parents respond differently to different types of acts. They take into account the domain of the situation.

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  Your Anxious Child

  How Parents and Teachers Can Relieve Anxiety in Children

  • John S. Dacey, Martha D. Mack, Lisa B. Fiore(Authors)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  You cannot manage the environment or the actions of others. What you can do is become mindful of your parenting style and model the behavior that you want your child to learn. You may not even be aware that you have a certain parenting style. Style is a hard concept to define, as it varies from person to person and couple to couple. Simply stated, a parenting style consists of all the behaviors that parents use in the context of their family, such as enforc- ing discipline and bandaging knees. The parents’ personal philoso- phies and values form the basis for these parenting behaviors. Various How Your Parenting Style Can Ease Your Child’s Anxiety 163 sources contribute to people’s parenting style, such as the example of their own parents, their religious beliefs, and the behavior and advice of friends. The decisions that parents make do not occur in a vacuum or “out of nowhere”. The experiences they have had over the course of their lives make a significant difference in the way they raise their children. A number of psychologists have conducted studies that examine Parenting Styles. In the section that follows we will present the five styles that have been identified over years of research. Later in the chapter, we will discuss how you may unwittingly contribute to your child’s anxiety, and explain the steps you might take to shift your own behavior in a way that will help your child. Understanding this information will lead to improved awareness of your child’s problems, thus increasing the odds that you will find effective solutions to her problems. Parenting Styles Diana Baumrind is one of the researchers who have examined the role of parents in child development. Baumrind’s research involves observations of parents interacting with their children. She has identified two broad characteristics of these interactions – demand- ingness and responsiveness.

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  Intercultural Parenting

  How Eastern and Western Parenting Styles Affect Child Development

  • Koong Hean Foo(Author)
  • 2019(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  It is likely that you would have used a style or a combination of them according to each child and situation. But you are likely to be quite consistent in your parenting practice. If, in the end, you use varied styles or practices, your opinions may not be in accordance with a stable parenting style. You may be doing what you consider is best at the moment for your child. In general, parents are quite consistent in their parenting, though they may not follow strongly a particular parenting style. Unless you are influenced by the literature or media on parenting, you are likely adhering to how you have been brought up and/or how you desire to parent your child or children.

  Do not judge yourself meanly if the parenting style turns out not to be your desired style or the better one recommended in the literature or here. Do not try to undo what you have done; just move on to the most suitable parenting style for you and your family.

  Conclusion

  There is little uniformity in measurements of parenting and outcomes.

  Parenting Styles are related to behaviour that occurs over a broad range of situations, thereby creating an atmosphere within which parent–child interactions take place. They are postulated to have similar influences across cultures. Parenting practices are situation-specific behaviours that may have different meanings in different cultures.

  Critiques on parenting measurements are countless, as mentioned before. No one style dictates universal parenting, and no one measure is capable of checking the different Parenting Styles across the cultures. For example, Steinberg’s group assesses warmth/involvement as a one-dimensional construct; low scores denote deficient warmth. There are no negative control components in this scale. A scale called Parental Warmth and Acceptance captures a bipolar construct, with a low score denoting deficient warmth, rejection, and hostility (Greenberger & Chen, 1996, cited in Stewart & Bond, 2002).

  Parental supervisory and control practices are described differently in different scales. For example, the Child Rearing Practices Report (Chen, Dong, & Zhou, 1997) includes rejecting, and critical behaviours with firmness, whereas other scales just have firmness alone.

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  A Childhood Psychology

  Young Children in Changing Times

  • Dion Sommer(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Red Globe Press

    (Publisher)

  In addition, a cause-and-effect direction from parent–child rhetoric may sneak in, despite the fact that all studies are based on correlations. Typologies can be useful only to the point that they can contribute to the understanding of important and different ways of parenting. But in everyday practice, there are far less clear-cut stylistic ways of being a parent. The four distinct styles outlined above are models of reality, which clearly simplify the complexities of parenting in the adult–child relationship. Nevertheless, Baumrind’s influential model does capture recognizable, essential ways of influencing children, albeit in a prototypical form. In the following, an attempt will be made to add some modifying nuances to the clear-cut cate-gories of the model. In her review of studies on Parenting Styles, Smetana (1994) evaluates Baumrind’s model in the context of subsequent research. In fact, research has confirmed that the model does identify dimensions seen in parenting approaches. A main objection, however, is that the four styles are general and Parenting I: Emergent Themes and Trends 141 decontextualized, and they fail to address and identify specific situations in parent–child relationships that will modify or weaken the prototypical clas-sification. As distinct types, the four categories seem problematic, because they infer that a parent ‘typically’ and across a multitude of situations reacts in a uniform way: the indulgent parent is always permissive and overly tol-erant; the authoritarian parent is always demanding and insensitive; while the authoritative style is consistently ‘perfect parenting’ and always able to strike the right balance between developmental demands that are in step with the child’s needs. By observing everyday parenting practice, however, these four different portraits seem not nearly so clear-cut. The individual parent may, in fact, use different Parenting Styles, depending on the choice made between con-flicting concerns.

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  Child and Adolescent Development in Your Classroom, Topical Approach

  • Christi Crosby Bergin, David Allen Bergin(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  Parents who lack a stable relationship, adequate income, and social support may find it more difficult to be authoritative. In addition, parents who fear the future, because they think the world is unsafe or that they cannot make a decent living, are more likely to be highly controlling with their children (Gurland & Grolnick, 2005). Thus, parenting style is a reflection not just of parents’ personality, but also the context in which they live. Indifferent parents are most likely to be at the two SES extremes—low and high. In some high-SES neighborhoods, there are no adults home after school to monitor the children. One teacher, at an expensive private school, tells the story of Kent. Kent has high test scores, but he never completes his homework on time. He is barely passing his classes. When I call his parents, they tell me they are getting a tutor and he will be doing his homework, but nothing changes. Kent’s parents work long hours so that sometimes he does not see them for days. I have never met the parents because they do not attend school events. Kent has started smoking, and other students say he uses drugs. Kent’s parents are wealthy with demanding jobs, and they have an indifferent par -enting style. Indifferent parenting is linked to drug and alcohol use in such families (Clark et al., 2015; Luthar, 2003). Ethnicity Authoritarian parenting is linked to more behavior problems and lower achieve -ment, as compared with authoritative parenting, for all children, but the effects are weaker for Black or Asian American children than for White and Latino children (Hill, Bush, & Roosa, 2003; Ho, Bluestein, & Jenkins, 2008; Pittman & Chase-Lansdale, 2001). African American parents tend to be more authoritarian and make more decisions for their adolescents than do European American parents (Gutman & Eccles, 2007).

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  Cognitive and Moral Development, Academic Achievement in Adolescence

  • Richard M. Lerner, Jasna Jovanovic, Richard M. Lerner(Authors)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  RALEIGH , MICHAEL J. The Relation of Parenting Style to Adolescent School Performance. CHILD DEVELOPMENT , 1987, 58, 1244–1257. This article develops and tests a reformation of Baumrind’s typology of authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative Parenting Styles in the context of adolescent school performance. Using a large and diverse sample of San Francisco Bay Area high school students (N = 7,836), we found that both authoritarian and permissive Parenting Styles were negatively associated with grades, and authoritative parenting was positively associated with grades. Parenting Styles generally showed the expected relation to grades across gender, age, parental education, ethnic, and family structure categories. Authoritarian parenting tended to have a stronger association with grades than did the other 2 Parenting Styles, except among Hispanic males. The full typology best predicted grades among white students. Pure authoritative families (high on authoritative but not high on the other 2 indices) had the highest mean grades, while inconsistent families that combine authoritarian parenting with other Parenting Styles had the lowest grades.

  A recent review of research on the family and school as educational institutions notes an increasing emphasis on “process” studies that seek to identify those features of the family environment through which socioeconomic and cultural background have an impact on mental development and school achievement. Hess and Holloway (1984) analyzed results from studies of preschool, primary, and middle-school children and identified five processes linking family and school achievement: (1) verbal interaction between mother and children, (2) expectation of parents for achievement, (3) positive affective relationships between parents and children, (4) parental beliefs and attributions about the child, and (5) discipline and control strategies. Among these various processes, discipline and control strategies appeared to have a major influence on school achievement (Baumrind, 1973; Hess & McDevitt, 1984; Marjoriebanks, 1979).

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