Psychology
Physical Development in Childhood
Physical development in childhood refers to the changes in a child's body and motor skills as they grow. This includes improvements in muscle strength, coordination, and the development of fine and gross motor skills. It also involves changes in height, weight, and physical appearance as children progress through different stages of development.
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11 Key excerpts on "Physical Development in Childhood"
eBook - ePubDevelopmental and Educational Psychology for Teachers
An applied approach
- Dennis McInerney, David Putwain(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
3 Physical and motor development: infancy to late childhoodIntroductionThis book is concerned with human development, particularly over the years of schooling. What do we mean by human development? By human development we specifically refer to systematic, age-related changes in physical and psychological functioning. In the following two chapters we focus on physical and motor development as children grow from infancy to adulthood. Physical development refers to physical and neurological growth and motor development refers to age-related changes in motor skills. In later chapters we deal with psychological development.Teachers, parents, and other professionals such as paediatric doctors and nurses involved in child care and development, need to know the characteristics of physical and motor development including:• when there are physical growth spurts; • when growth slows down; • what are the norms of physical and motor growth; • are girls and boys, and individuals from different genetic backgrounds similar in their developmental trajectories; • how to support optimal development and remediate slow development; • what part diet and parenting (home background) play in development; • how physical and motor development relates to the development of learning capacities.ACTIVITY POSTConsider your physical and motor development over time. A good way to remember key elements of your physical and motor development is by looking through family photograph albums. Collate a series of photos that record your physical development, place them in a timeline, and annotate them with principles of development covered in this and the next chapter. Compare your timeline and notes with the timeline and notes of other students. What are some of the common features of development? What are some individual features?
eBook - ePubThe Early Years Foundation Stage
Theory and Practice
- Ioanna Palaiologou(Author)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications Ltd(Publisher)
- show accuracy and care when drawing and copying. (DfE, 2018i: 11)
However, physical development is a dynamic process that impacts on all aspects of the child’s development. When working with young children to meet the EYFS ELGs of physical development you need to understand the complexities of this dynamic process so you can offer learning environments that will enhance physical activity.This chapter thus defines physical development as ‘all these biological changes that occur in the body and the brain, including changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor activities and development of fine and gross motor skills’ (Levine and Munsch, 2021: 7). These are shaped by the environment and culture, and impact on health, well-being and cognition which include mental processes such as memory, attention, problem solving, language, and personal, social and emotional competences. Together these allow children to acquire knowledge and understanding of the world to function within society.Physical development, as with all other aspects of development such as language and problem-solving, is characterised by qualitative and quantitative changes. The quantitative changes are more obvious, especially in their bodily proportions, but the qualitative ones are less easy to measure, especially when it comes to brain growth. Seeing children growing in size is a quantitative change, but children’s growth of brain is a qualitative change as they are able to move to complex tasks which is obvious in their play. For example, traditionally peek-a-boo is played with babies and they do enjoy it. As they get older and their brain is developed as well as their physical growth (which allows them to walk and run) they like playing hide-and-seek and can find their own hiding places and are able to search for others.When children are born they display a number of skills crucial to their survival. In the first few months of infants’ lives reflexes play an important role in physical development as they help to build social relationships, essential to all other aspects of their development. Infants’ reflexes, such as breathing, sucking, swallowing and blinking, help babies and parents to establish interactions and attachment (see Chapters 12 and 15
eBook - PDF- Karen R. Huffman, Alastair Younger, Claire Vanston(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
9 Lifespan Development I: Physical and Cognitive Development I f you have ever spent time at a daycare centre, you were probably struck by the sight of many exuber- ant children laughing, shrieking, and jostling for atten- tion from those entrusted with their care. Yet amid this barely controlled chaos, babies learn to crawl, toddlers learn not to bite one another, and preschoolers learn their ABCs. Day by day, every child grows a little stron- ger, a little more independent. Over a lifetime, every person undergoes many physical changes. These changes are most striking in early childhood because they happen so rapidly and are so visible. But everyone is in a state of constant change and development throughout his or her entire life. The typical person will be many different people in his or her lifetime—infant, child, teenager, adult, and senior. Would you like to know more about yourself at each of these ages? In the next two chapters, we will explore research in developmental psychology. We will begin this chapter by studying how developmen- tal psychologists conduct their research. Then we will look at changes in our physical and cognitive develop- ment from conception to death. In Chapter 10, we will examine important aspects of our social, moral, and personality development across the lifespan. To empha- size that development is an ongoing, lifelong process, throughout the next two chapters we will trace physical, cognitive, social, moral, and personality development— one at a time—from conception to death. This topical approach will allow us to see how development affects an individual over the entire lifespan.
eBook - PDFEarly Childhood Studies
A Multidisciplinary Approach
- Jenny Willan(Author)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- Red Globe Press(Publisher)
63 UNDERSTANDING CHILD DEVELOPMENT: SUPPORTING THE UNIQUE CHILD II 4 Physical development – the interplay of body and brain 65 5 Cognitive development 87 6 Socialisation, language and play 108 7 Emotional and moral development 131 65 Introduction Part 2 considers the ways in which bodies and brains develop holistically as children engage physically, cognitively and emotionally with the world around them. Although the process is holistic, it seems easier for the purposes of study to break it into the classical areas of development, covering physical, cognitive, social, linguistic and emotional development. The human child has a very long period of dependency compared to other mammals, and it takes around eight years to develop from vulnerable baby through mobile toddler to chatty preschooler and independent schoolchild. Parents and carers need to constantly adapt to the growing child in order to provide the right balance of nutrition, exercise, sleep and stimulation to support each developmental phase. Development is a holistic process of interaction between body and brain, involving reciprocal physical, social, emotional and intellectual responses. It is dependent on the interplay of hered-ity, character, family, neighbourhood and culture, and no two children will develop in exactly the same way – even identical twins brought up in the same home will be different. Children progress at different speeds, and it is important to remember that the charts included in this chapter showing the ‘normal’ path of development can provide only a rough guide to what might be expected for a particular child at a given age. Stages of development We all know that tiny babies have to be kept warm and safe, fed and clean, but it would be a mistake to think that is all they need in the first year and to assume that their minds begin to grow only when they start talking. There is much more going on in the mind of a baby than most people imagine.
eBook - PDFEarly Childhood Studies
Principles and Practice
- Jane Johnston, Lindy Nahmad-Williams, Ruby Oates, Val Wood(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Routledge(Publisher)
Today, a more sophisticated approach is recognised and while we cannot ‘reinvent ourselves’, environ- mental factors are now considered very influential on our eventual level of physical skills and development and the final definition of a person’s character. Maturation Maturation is the name given for the rate at which we develop physically. Maturation is genetically influenced. Crowley (2014: 237), for example, refers to maturation as ‘physical and psychological change unfolding according to a genetically programmed plan’, whilst Papalia et al. (2006) acknowledge the inclusion of behavioural changes and the readiness to master new abilities. Part 2 Early Years Development 102 Certain behaviours in children cannot be achieved because they are not maturationally ready – for instance, you cannot toilet train an 8-month-old, because the body has not matured sufficiently. All people pass through the same stages in maturation in a certain order. For instance, walking occurs before running. Children do not, however, mature at the same rate, due to their maturation level and their genetic make-up (Davenport, 2001: 4). The influence of maturation in physical development is a matter of some debate. Papalia et al. (2006) argue that seeing all motor development as a result of brain development is simplistic and seek to explain that it should rather be viewed as a process of continual development between the brain (maturation) and environmental factors, such as the child’s motivation to achieve a physical milestone and the opportunities it has to explore and prac- tise skills. Bertram and Pascal (2010) note that to understand development, theorists must look beyond biological explanations and realise that learning is significantly influenced by individual social and cultural experiences. Poverty Poverty has a negative effect on a child’s holistic outlook and this includes physical devel- opment.
eBook - ePubChild Development
Concepts and Theories
- Jean A. Mercer(Author)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- SAGE Publications Ltd(Publisher)
Chapter 4 Concepts of Physical Growth and DevelopmentChapter 4 continues to apply broad concepts of developmental change through examination of physical growth and development from birth to age 12. Developmental trajectories, or predictable pathways of growth and developmental change, are understood because of information provided by research on populations of children; growth charts allow us to compare individuals to larger groups and to identify typical individual differences as opposed to atypical development. Bone growth, brain development, and reproductive development all show the existence of plasticity, the continuing effects of environmental factors in the shaping of development. Sensory and motor development also demonstrate much more plasticity than is usually assumed.Introduction
At birth, typically-developing children already have all the organ systems that they will ever possess, although these are far from adult-like either in size or in function. Growth and continuing development after birth are needed to ensure typical development through early and middle childhood. The present chapter will present concepts that help us understand the progress of this complex developmental change from birth to about age 12. Advances in size and body proportions will be discussed, as will changes in the nervous system and the reproductive system. Other important topics will be motor development (increases in voluntary control over movement) and sensory development (advances in the structure and functioning of sense organs).Development story 4.1Six-year-old Ibrahim was short in stature but appeared healthy and was doing well in school. His parents were concerned about his height because he was not only smaller than all his classmates, but smaller than they remembered his older brothers being at this age. Ibrahim’s family history was a difficult one. Before Ibrahim was born, the family had lived a comfortable and peaceful life, but soon before his birth civil war in their country forced them to go first to a refugee camp, and then, much later, to a European nation. These disruptions included a period of time when food was scarce. While there were technically enough calories and nutrients to go around, Ibrahim, then between 18 months and 3 years of age, did not have adequate nourishment. Food that adults could consume easily was difficult for him to chew, and his mother did not have the pots or cooking facilities to provide better choices for him. Anxious and depressed, as well as eating less than usual, Ibrahim’s mother was no longer able to breastfeed him as she normally would have done. Ibrahim’s growth slowed and he became lethargic and less interested in eating or exploring the world around him. By the time they arrived at their new home, Ibrahim’s parents had noticed that he was smaller than they had expected and did not behave like other children his age. With a much improved diet, Ibrahim recovered his appetite and became lively and inquisitive once more. He began to grow at a better rate, but did not catch up with other children his age.
eBook - ePubTopics in the History of Psychology
Volume II
- G. A. Kimble, K. Schlesinger(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Psychology Press(Publisher)
The newer labels, child development and developmental psychology, can occasionally be found in early writings in the field. Moreover, an examination of the titles of major journals in the field will establish that the name “child psychology” has not been entirely abandoned. However, the concept of development is certainly crucial to the present definition, and many different types of evidence show that it has become more important to the field as the years have passed.But what is development? Many papers and at least one entire book (Harris, 1957) have been devoted to this question. One definition describes a change as developmental “if it can be related to age in an orderly or lawful way” (Kessen, 1960, p. 36). Other writers argue that such a definition is too inclusive. For example, Wohlwill (1970, p. 52) states that age changes should be regarded as developmental only if the changes “are uniform and consistent across a wide range of individuals and environmental conditions.” In other words, age changes that are a function of specific experiences, for example growing up in one culture rather than another, would not be considered developmental changes. Such a definition appears overly restrictive, because many age changes are likely to reflect the combined effects of specific experiences and the endogenous factor usually called maturation. Wohlwill appears to argue that developmental psychology should be concerned only with phenomena that are primarily a function of maturation.However, there is an element of truth in Wohlwill’s position. Most developmental psychologists would agree that a truly developmental phenomenon involves some influence of maturation (or another biological process—aging). Age changes that solely reflect learning would not be called developmental changes. In other words, developmental psychologists are concerned with age changes that are a function of maturation alone, maturation plus learning, or an interaction of the two (Bijou, 1968). The same factors have been labeled in different ways, as nature versus nurture, or heredity versus environment. The specific phrasing is sometimes important, but it is more significant that this definition of development refers directly to the explanation of age changes. In deriving the definition, we have made the assumption that age changes may be attributed to learning, maturation, or their combined effects.
eBook - PDFChildhood and Adolescence
Voyages in Development
- Spencer Rathus(Author)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
iStock.com/Voyagerix 8 Early Childhood: Physical Development LEARNING OBJECTIVES 8-1 Describe growth patterns during early childhood, focusing on development of the brain. 8-2 Describe motor development in early childhood, focusing on gross and fine motor skills and on handedness. 8-3 Discuss nutritional needs during early childhood and children’s compliance and resistance to healthful foods. 8-4 Discuss the “usual” childhood diseases and immunization, focusing on the anti-vaxxer controversy. 8-5 Discuss sleep patterns in early childhood, focusing on nightmares and sleep terrors. 8-6 Discuss elimination disorders in early childhood, how caregivers may overreact to delayed development of self-control, and what psychologists suggest about coping. 250 Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. DIVERSITY • Gender Differences in Motor Activity REAL LIFE • Six Things You Need to Know About Vaccines • And What About the “Anti-Vaxxers”? • What to Do About Bedwetting RESEARCH • Cross-Cultural Differences in Sleeping Arrangements Two-year-old Miguel is having lunch in his highchair. He is not without ambition. He begins by shoving fistfuls of hamburger into his mouth. He picks up his cup with both hands and drinks milk. Then he starts banging his spoon on his tray and his cup. He kicks his feet against the chair. He throws hamburger on the floor. Compare Miguel’s behavior with that of Larry, age 3½, who is getting ready for bed. Larry carefully pulls his plastic train track apart and places each piece in the box.
- Christi Crosby Bergin, David Allen Bergin(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Cengage Learning EMEA(Publisher)
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 172 Section 3 Early Childhood ● Early experiences are important due to brain plasticity. There is a gradual loss of brain plasticity for some functions, but remediation is usually possible when early disadvantage occurs. ● Providing rich experience, which shapes brain architecture, is important for early childhood teachers. 6-2 Growth and Motor Development in Early Childhood ● By preschool age, rate of growth is about 3 inches in height and 4 pounds per year. Height at 4 years predicts final adult height. ● Children develop gross and fine motor skills in a predictable sequence. There is dramatic improvement in walking quality during early childhood. ● Genes, exercise, and nutrition combine to drive physical development. In addition, harsh or unresponsive caregiving can undermine physical growth and well-being. ● Motor skills affect children’s learning and success in the classroom. Teachers can promote children’s growth and motor development by ensuring good nutrition at school and adequate physical activity. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 173 Cognitive Development in Early Childhood In Chapter 3, you were introduced to major theories of learning and cognition— behaviorism, Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory, and information processing.
eBook - PDF- Phillip T. Slee, Marilyn Campbell, Barbara Spears(Authors)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
Indeed, the legacy of the early pioneers in charting physical development is the notion of an orderly march of stages, unfolding as a byproduct of neural-muscular matu-ration (e.g. Gesell 1946 ). During toddlerhood children’s developing physical skills shift dramatically from a position of high dependency on the care-giver to a grow-ing independence. Their emerging curiosity and mastery of locomotor skills facilitate their exploration of the wider world. Meanwhile their parents provide a secure base to which they can return from time to time. As reviewed by Adolph ( 2008 ), over the first two years of life body weight nearly quadruples, height doubles and head circumference increases by a third. However, growth occurs in fits and starts, and Adolph notes that infants may grow 1 to 2 cen-timetres taller overnight. Unstable sitting is replaced by stable, hands-free sitting. 215 Chapter 9 Physical development of toddlers Crawling on the tummy gives way to crawling on hands and knees. Pulling to a stand is followed quickly by cruising sideways along furniture. Free standing soon leads to walking. In contrast to the rapid growth during infancy, physical growth slows during the toddler period. The charts in Figure 9.1 give the relative height and weight rates dur-ing infancy and toddlerhood for girls and boys. It can be seen that physical growth slows after infancy and is characterised during toddlerhood by a slow but steady gain or rate of change. Appearance Body fat Thelen et al. ( 2002 ) have identified the rapid growth in central nervous system devel-opment which is ‘concomitant with equally dramatic changes in muscle mass, mus-cle fiber characteristics, muscle tone, body composition, and body proportion, all of which are vital contributors to the final movement outcome’. One conspicuous change in body appearance from infancy to toddlerhood is a decrease in body fat. At the end of the first year of life the amount of body fat peaks at 22 per cent of total body weight.
eBook - PDFVisualizing
The Lifespan
- Jennifer Tanner, Amy Warren, Daniel Bellack(Authors)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
In the past, left-handers were also thought to be more susceptible to developmental delays and immune deficien- cies, as well as other behavioral and physiological anomalies, including substance abuse, migraine headaches, and dis- rupted sleep patterns (Coren & Halpern, 1991; Geschwind & Behan, 1982). However, more recent research has chal- lenged this position by finding no significant differences between left- and right-handers (Leconte & Fagard, 2006). We now turn to a matter of considerably less debate: how bones develop during early childhood. The Skeletal System During the preschool years, the most obvious changes in the skeletal system involve the length, width, and hardness of bones. The process of ossification, through which car- tilage turns into bone, occurs from infancy through adolescence. Study of this process can aid in determining a child's skeletal age ossification The process through which cartilage becomes bone. 146 CHAPTER 5 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood: Two to Six Years Along with the physical changes that children expe- rience during the preschool years, children also make great strides in their cognitive development. We consider this domain, including language development, in the next section. The Muscular System During the early-childhood years, children’s muscles de- velop slowly and steadily (Tortora & Nielsen, 2009). The most obvious evidence of muscle change is displayed through improvements in children’s gross-motor and fine-motor skills. We first encountered these skills in Chapter 3, when we noted that fine-motor skills are con- trolled by small muscles, such as the muscles of the hands and fingers, and we explained how large muscles power gross-motor skills. The major gross-motor and fine-motor milestones of early childhood can be seen in Table 5.1. Gross-motor changes result largely from improved body stability, en- hanced muscle complexity and growth, and myelination of the central nervous system.
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