Prenatal Physical Development

10 Key excerpts on "Prenatal Physical Development"

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  eBook - ePub

  Child Development

  A Practical Introduction

  • Kevin Crowley(Author)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications Ltd

    (Publisher)

  4 Physical and Brain Development

  By the end of this chapter you should

  • have a basic understanding of prenatal development
  • have a basic understanding of the physical changes that take place during childhood and be familiar with factors related to those changes
  • understand the distinction between fine and gross motor skills and be aware of how these skills develop
  • be familiar with the basic structure of the brain and understand some of the key concepts and terminology related to brain development
  • understand how the environment in which the child is raised plays a crucial role in physical growth and the development of the brain.

  Why you should read this chapter

  A great many physical changes take place over the course of childhood. It is tempting to think of physical growth and brain development as a process that happens naturally if a few basic conditions are met, such as being provided with adequate nutrition. There is undoubtedly a pre-programmed element to biological development; however, as you will see from this chapter, the development of the brain and even physical growth itself are affected significantly by the child’s experience as well and require more than just satisfying certain conditions. The provision of a stimulating and emotionally caring environment also plays a crucial role in biological development in childhood.

  Prenatal development

  The nine-month period between conception and birth is divided into three stages: the germinal stage, which covers the first two weeks after conception; the embryonic stage, which lasts from the third to the eighth week; and the foetal stage, which lasts from nine weeks to birth. The following sections summarise some of the main developments at each stage, based on the accounts of prenatal development provided by Berk (2008) and Moore and Persaud (2003).

  The germinal stage

  Conception occurs when the egg and sperm unite to form a single cell called a zygote. The zygote then journeys from the fallopian tubes to the uterus and the process of cell division begins: the zygote divides into two cells, then into four cells, sixteen cells, and so on. By about the fourth day, the zygote is now a hollow, fluid-filled ball called a blastocyst. The cells on the inside of the blastocyst form the embryonic disk that will become the new organism. The outer layer of the blastocyst is called the trophoblast and this will combine with cells in the uterus to form the structures that will protect and nourish the developing organism. Between the seventh and ninth days, the blastocyst begins to implant in the wall of the uterus. The trophoblast starts to multiply rapidly and first forms a protective membrane called the amnion, which encloses the organism in amniotic fluid. This fluid maintains a stable temperature and also acts as a cushion again jolts caused by the mother’s movements. A yolk sac also develops that produces blood cells. In the second week of this state the cells of the trophoblast form a second protective layer called the chorion

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  eBook - ePub

  Development in Infancy

  • Martha E. Arterberry, Marc H. Bornstein(Authors)
  • 2023(Publication Date)
  • Routledge

    (Publisher)

  CHAPTER 4 Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn

  DOI: 10.4324/9781003340263-4

  Infancy is a time of especially rapid physical and nervous system growth and development. The study of these aspects of infancy is important because they provide foundations for many other aspects of psychological development. As such, development in these very basic spheres of life often influences development in other spheres of life. Consider an example. Young infants cannot pinch (use the thumb and forefinger together) to hold an object, but must instead grasp (using the palm and whole hand). It takes about 14 months until the average infant can hold an object in the more mature fashion, and this transition marks a major change in infants’ tactile and visual inspection of objects. Improvements in holding enhance cognitive development, presumably because babies can more fully explore objects and learn from their exploration (Libertus & Needham, 2011 ).

  This chapter and the next address physical and nervous system development in infancy. Here, we also consider prenatal development and birth. Postnatal development is best considered against the backdrop of prenatal development, and birth occurs during an ongoing developmental process—it neither initiates nor terminates development. Our goal in this chapter is to focus attention on those issues that help us understand infancy after birth, and thus we discuss genetics, anatomical changes before and just after birth, the birth process, and the early capacities of the newborn.

  CHAPTER OVERVIEW

  Physical development beginning at conception

  Genetic contributions

  Prenatal development

  Teratogens and other harmful agents

  Birth and prematurity

  Sensory capacities of the newborn

  What are the genetic underpinnings of development?

  Development begins long before birth, so here we consider prenatal influences on the growth of both structures and functions. Long ago it was believed that the organism-to-be was “preformed” in the mother’s egg waiting to be released, or in the father’s sperm waiting for a medium in which to grow. Modern biology tells a very different story.

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  eBook - PDF

  Handbook of Developmental Psychology

  • Jaan Valsiner, Kevin J Connolly, Jaan Valsiner, Kevin J Connolly(Authors)
  • 2002(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications Ltd

    (Publisher)

  As a result the physical development of the human foetus is well understood. The availability of many detailed textbooks on virtually all aspects of physical development attests to this (Carlson, 1994; McLachlan, 1994; Moore, 1989). The physical processes that determine development and the embryological origins of adult structures are well understood and the induction of cell growth and specialisation are beginning to be broadly understood. This is in marked contrast to prenatal psychological development, which is poorly understood. It is not my intention to discuss physical develop-ment per se other than to provide a brief outline of the basic terminology and key principles underlying development. Development before birth is divided into three periods: the conceptual, the embryonic and the foetal. The conceptual period extends from fertilization to the establishment of the pregnancy, approximately 2 weeks later. During this period the fertilized egg (the zygote) travels down the fallopian tube and implants itself into the wall of the uterus (5-6 days after fertilization). During this time, first the cells divide to form a ball of cells (the morulla) and then, with the formation of a cavity within the morulla, this becomes the blastocyst. For the next 7 days the blastocyst burrows into the uterine lining, establishing a primitive placenta and circulation. After 2 weeks pregnancy is established. The next period of development, the embryonic period, begins during the middle of the second week with the formation of the bilaminar embryonic disc and finishes at the end of the eighth week. During this time all the major structures of the body are formed (heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, etc.). The individual is now called an embryo, and at the end of this period the physical appearance of the embryo is clearly human. The foetal period extends from 9 weeks after fertilization to birth and the individual is referred to as a foetus.

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  Psychology, 6th Australian and New Zealand Edition

  • Lorelle J. Burton, Drew Westen, Robin M. Kowalski(Authors)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  • What kind of design is this: cross-sectional, longitudinal or sequential? • What can the investigators conclude? • What can they not conclude, and why? INTERIM SUMMARY Cross-sectional studies compare groups of participants of different ages at a single time to provide a picture of age differences. Longitudinal studies assess the same individuals over time, providing the opportunity to assess age changes. Sequential studies minimise cohort effects by studying multiple cohorts longitudinally. Pdf_Folio:732 732 Psychology 15.3 Physical development and its psychological consequences LEARNING OUTCOME 15.3 Describe how physical development occurs across the life span and discuss its impact on psychological functioning. Having examined some of the basic issues and methods of developmental psychology, we turn now to physical development and its impact on psychological functioning. Many of those changes are obvious even to the untrained eye. Children develop rapidly during the early years, outgrowing clothes before wearing them out. However, some of the most dramatic aspects of physical development cannot be observed directly because they take place before birth. Prenatal development One of the most remarkable aspects of development is that a single cell, forged by the union of a sperm and an egg, contains the blueprint for an organism that will emerge — complete with billions of specialised cells — nine months later. The prenatal period (before birth, also called the gestation period) is divided into three stages (figure 15.2). During the germinal period (approximately the first two weeks after conception), the fertilised egg becomes implanted in the uterus. The embryonic period (from the beginning of the third week to about the eighth week of gestation) is the most important period in the development of the central nervous system and of the organs.

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  Prenatal, Perinatal and Postnatal Adverse Conditions and their Impact on Psychosomatic Health in Children

  • (Author)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • Cuvillier Verlag

    (Publisher)

  Finally, it contains the time factor from the beginning of a life – conception – until the end of a human life – death (Bernstein & Lamb, 2005; Newman & Newman, 2009; Petermann et al., 2004). In the following, we will focus especially on the prenatal period, the pregnancy and the perinatal period, and also on childhood until puberty because of their importance for this thesis. The considerations will be two-poled, taking a developmental and sensitivity perspective for negative health effects. Figure 2 provides an overview of important developmental phases of these periods. Each of Dieses Werk ist copyrightgeschützt und darf in keiner Form vervielfältigt werden noch an Dritte weitergegeben werden. Es gilt nur für den persönlichen Gebrauch. 7 them might have also sensitive windows for negative influences of adverse pre-, peri- and postnatal conditions. Figure 2. Developmental stages and potential sensitive phases for adverse pre-, peri- and postnatal conditions 2.1 Pregnancy – Prenatal Development For most women, pregnancy and birth are an extraordinary experience. In addition to distinctive physiological modifications, such as hormonal and anatomic changes, there are psychological adjustment processes required, such as coping with the challenges of the physical changes and the role and responsibility as mother (Bühling & Friedmann, 2004; Ehlert et al., 2003; Petersen et al., 2009). During a pregnancy, there are bidirectional influences of the fetus and the pregnant woman within her social and cultural environments (Bühling & Friedmann, 2004; Newman & Newman, 2009; Stauber & Weyerstahl, 2005). Such interactions are also important in terms of the mother’s experiences of stressful situations and can consequently have influences on the fetal development (Davis et al., 2007; Schneider, 2000; Wadhwa et al., 1997; Wadhwa et al., 2004).

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  Child Psychology

  Development in a Changing Society

  • Robin Harwood, Scott A. Miller, Ross Vasta(Authors)
  • 2012(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 4 ■ Prenatal Development, Birth, and the Newborn 118 temperament at 2 years of age (DiPietro et al., 2002). Similarly, fetuses vary in their pat- terns of heart rate change, and these variations have been shown to correlate with some aspects of both temperament and cognitive development in early childhood (Bornstein et al., 2002; DiPietro et al., 1996). Nevertheless, individual temperament and behavioral characteristics cannot be predicted accurately from measures during the prenatal period. Thus, parents should not anticipate a challenging toddler just because their fetus seems to kick more than the average baby. Learning Objective 4.2: Trace the changes that occur in the three stages of prenatal development. 1. What is the period of gestation in humans, and how is it calculated? 2. What changes occur during the period of the zygote between conception and the end of the second week of development? 3. What changes occur during the period of the embryo between weeks 3 and 8? 4. What changes occur during the period of the fetus between the 9th week and birth? Prenatal Environmental Influences The baby’s earliest development is influenced not only by genetic heritage, but also by the environment in the only home the embryo and fetus know: the mother’s uterus. A number of factors affect the quality of this early home and determine whether or not development is optimal—even if development can occur at all. Some factors are exter- nal agents, acting on the baby through the mother. Others involve the health of the mother herself. Teratogens Approximately 3 to 4 percent of all babies born alive are identified as having a birth de- fect (National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, 2005). In addi- tion to genetic causes, malformations may result from prenatal exposure to infectious diseases, drugs, harmful chemicals, and other environmental hazards.

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  Child Psychology

  A Canadian Perspective

  • Alastair Younger, Scott A. Adler, Ross Vasta(Authors)
  • 2014(Publication Date)
  • Wiley

    (Publisher)

  Source: Public Health Agency of Canada, An inventory of education and training programs: FASD and the judicial/criminal justice system, Ottawa: Author, 2011. Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: FASD guidebook for police officers, Ottawa: Author, no date. Popova, S., Lange, S., Bekmuradov, D., Mihic, A., and Rehm, J., “Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder prevalence estimates in correctional systems: a systematic literature review,” Canadian Journal of Public Health, September-October 2011, pp. 336–40. Stages of Prenatal Development, p. 98 Learning Objective 4.1 Trace the changes that occur in the three stages of prenatal development. Teratology, p. 105 Learning Objective 4.2 Describe the impact of teratogens on prenatal development. Natural Challenges, p. 116 Learning Objective 4.3 Describe the natural challenges that can affect fetal development. Preventing, Detecting, and Treating Birth Defects, p. 121 Learning Objective 4.4 Discuss the various methods of preventing identifying, and treating birth defects prenatally. PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT C H A P T E R 4 98 Chapter 4 – Prenatal Development when we consider the course of a child’s life, the nine months between conception and birth may be the most unappreciated period of development. This is probably because the events that occur during this time are largely hidden from view. Yet during these nine months, what begins as a microscopic fertilized egg undergoes a series of dramatic changes and eventually emerges as a living, breathing baby. You can probably imagine how people from ancient cultures must have struggled to explain how a fully-formed creature could appear at birth. As late as the 18th century, some believed that people were completely formed even before conception. One theory, preformationism, proposed that each sperm cell contained a tiny individual (called a homun- culus), like the one shown in Figure 4.1, who would grow when deposited in a woman’s womb.

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  Development Through Life

  A Psychosocial Approach

  • Barbara Newman, Philip Newman(Authors)
  • 2017(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  During pregnancy, a woman’s immune system may be weaker, and the immune system of the fetus is not fully developed. As a result, both the woman Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300 114 CHAPTER 4 The Period of Pregnancy and Prenatal Development neurological and behavioral development. As suggested by the model for the differential effect of the childrearing environment presented earlier in the chapter (Figure 4.6), psychosocial pro-cesses can contribute to growth and new resources for coping or to disruption and limitations on coping. Within the prenatal environment, a child’s genetic potential may encounter a sup-portive, healthy, optimizing environment or an environment in which one or more conditions place fetal development at risk. For infants who carry the genetic markers for anomalies, the expression of these conditions may be less severe when fetal depression in women emphasize that the period of pregnancy and childbirth should be a time for preventive intervention (Le, Munoz, Ippen, & Stoddard, 2003). Summary The many risk factors we have reviewed, including maternal age, exposure to drugs and environmental toxins, exposure to medi-cations, inadequate nutritional resources, and stress, can occur singly or in combination. The greater the number of risk factors the fetus encounters, the greater the chance for disruption in FIGURE 4.10 ▶ FOOD SAFETY FOR BABY AND ME Source: Foodsafety.gov. Retrieved from http:// www.foodsafety.gov/risk/pregnant/ Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300 The Cultural Context of Pregnancy and Childbirth 115 development has taken place in a healthy, fully resourced uter-ine environment.

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  Essentials of Psychology

  • John P. Houston, Helen Bee, David C. Rimm(Authors)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Academic Press

    (Publisher)

  Are these patterns permanently formed in childhood, or can they be changed later? The thread that runs through these questions is an underlying interest in the process of development. Developmental psychologists want to un-derstand the ways people change and the ways they stay the same over time, from conception to death. Basic processes and major theories of development As we pointed out in Chapter 1, we can look at any aspect of human functioning from several different perspectives. Within developmental psy-chology, there are at least three major perspectives: biological, environmen-tal (learning), and interactional Each of these perspectives emphasizes different basic processes, and each has distinct theories associated with it. Basic processes and major theories of development 281 Biological processes All psychologists agree that certain basic, biological processes underlie many of the developmental changes we see. The 6-month-old baby cannot walk, while the 1-year-old baby can because of physical changes in the muscles and nervous system. The 60-year-old cannot run as fast as he did at 20 because of loss of muscle tissue and other physical changes of aging. Much of the development we see in children, and probably in adults and older people as well, is governed by physical changes that are spelled out in the individual's genes. For instance, a growing human's nervous system changes systematically and automatically, which results in predict-able changes in bones and muscles. Both the sequence and the timing of these changes are programmed in the genes at conception, so the fact that you crawl before you walk and that you are an early or a late developer at puberty are part of your genetic programming. The term maturation is used to describe growth processes that are governed by such automatic, genetically determined signals.

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  Essentials of Human Development

  A Life-Span View

  • Robert Kail, John Cavanaugh(Authors)
  • 2016(Publication Date)
  • Cengage Learning EMEA

    (Publisher)

  All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. 46 | Part 1: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, INFANCY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD vitamins, and minerals that are essential for normal prenatal development. When a pregnant woman does not provide adequate nourishment, her infant may be born prematurely, be underweight, and be vulnerable to ill-ness (Morgane et al., 1993). Inadequate nourishment during the last few months of pregnancy can particularly affect the nervous system, because this is a time of rapid brain growth. Stress Does a pregnant woman’s mood affect the zygote, embryo, or fetus in her uterus? This question addresses the impact on prenatal development of chronic stress, which refers to a person’s physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging situations. Women who report greater anxiety or stress during pregnancy more often give birth early or have babies who weigh less than average (Tegethoff et al., 2010; Yonkers et al., 2014). In addition, their children are less able to pay attention as infants and more prone to behavioral problems as preschoolers (Loomans et al., 2012; O’Connor et al., 2002). Similar results emerge in studies of preg-nant women exposed to disasters, such as the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center: Their children’s physical and behavioral development is affected (Engel et al., 2005; King et al., 2012). Increased stress harms prenatal development in several ways. First, when a pregnant woman experiences stress, the fetus receives less oxygen (Monk et al., 2000).

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