Theories of Small Groups

Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Marshall Scott Poole, Andrea B. Hollingshead, Marshall Scott Poole, Andrea B. Hollingshead

• Publisher: SAGE Publications, Inc
• Year: 2004
• Print ISBN: 9780761930761, 9780761930754
• eBook ISBN: 9781506319841
• Edition: 1
• Topic: Languages & Linguistics
• Subtopic: Communication Studies
• Index: Languages & Linguistics

"Theories of Small Groups: Interdisciplinary Perspectives is a book that will make a significant difference in how those interested in the study of small groups think and pursue inquiry about them. In this impressive collection of original essays, the reader is introduced to nine different perspectives that have guided the development of theories and research concerning the nature of group processes. Drawing on the efforts of numerous scholars with backgrounds in biological and social sciences, editors Scott Poole and Andrea Hollingshead provide a useful vehicle for the emergence of enriched understandings of the behavior of groups, enhancing the integration of such knowledge, and the prospects for substantial increases in genuinely interdisciplinary scholarship."

-Dennis S. Gouran, The Pennsylvania State University

People live in groups, work in groups, and play in groups. As a result, groups have been a focus of study across the social and behavioral sciences. Although it has been actively pursued within individual disciplines and sub-disciplines, group research as a whole remains fragmented and discipline-bounded.

Theories of Small Groups: Interdisciplinary Perspectives brings together the threads that unify the field of group research. The book is designed to define and describe theoretical perspectives on groups and to highlight select research findings within those perspectives. In this text, editors Marshall Scott Poole and Andrea B. Hollingshead capitalize on the theoretical advances made over the last fifty years by integrating models and theories of small groups into a set of nine general theoretical perspectives. Theories of Small Groups is the first book to assess, synthesize, integrate, and evaluate the body of theory and research on small groups across disciplinary boundaries.

Key Features

• Offers an interdisciplinary approach to group research with contributions from authors across many fields
• Includes nine theoretical perspectives, each written by an author team composed of experts who have conducted independent research within that perspective
• Organizes chapters in a similar format to easily compare the basic premises and findings examined across the various perspectives covered
• Concludes with a chapter that compares and contrasts the nine perspectives in the form of seven "touchstones"- boundaries/embeddedness; competition, conflict and interdependence; causality; regulation of interaction; risk/uncertainty; cognition/intentionality, and time

Theories of Small Groups summarizes the current state of group theory and research in a brief volume that can be used by researchers and in graduate courses that will train the next generation of group scholars. It is an excellent supplementary textbook for graduate courses on small groups in many disciplines, including Communication, Psychology, Management, Sociology, Political Science, and Education.

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Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Small Groups

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Marshall Scott Poole, Andrea B. Hollingshead, Joseph E. McGrath, Richard Moreland, and John Rohrbaugh

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Abstract

This book attempts to assess, synthesize, integrate, and evaluate the body of theory on small groups across disciplinary boundaries. In this introduction, we identify and briefly describe nine general theoretical perspectives from which small groups have been examined: the psychodynamic, functional, temporal, conflict-power-status, symbolic-interpretive, social identity, social-evolutionary, social network, and feminist perspectives. We conclude with some general observations about the nine perspectives and an overview of the book.

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The study of groups has been an important endeavor in psychology, sociology, education, communication, management, social work, political science, public policy, urban planning, and information science. Since 1940, literally thousands of studies on every aspect of groups have been published. Countless literature reviews, handbooks, and “state of the field” articles attempt to pull together what is known about groups within distinct disciplines.

Although it has been pursued actively within individual disciplines and subdisciplines, as a whole, group research remains fragmented and discipline bound. There have been few attempts to integrate theory and research across disciplinary boundaries. Theorists and researchers often are not aware of relevant work in other fields. Even within fields, lines of research proceed unconnected to other potentially relevant work. To capitalize on the advances of the past 50 years and on the present energy directed to group research, it is important to link disparate areas and to foster integration among diverse theoretical traditions. The advances in the understanding of groups that have appeared in individual fields provide a firm foundation for an interdisciplinary integration of theory and research on groups. This book represents one of the first efforts to bring together across disciplinary boundaries scholars who view groups from a common theoretical lens.

The major objective of this edited book is to summarize the current state of group theory and research in a brief volume that can be used by researchers and in the graduate courses that will train the next generation of group scholars. The book describes where group research has been and will suggest where it should go in the future. The goals of describing, explaining, predicting, and improving groups reflect an aspiration to develop broader and more general theories of groups than now exist.

Background

This book is the culmination of a National Science Foundation-supported project to promote integrative thinking about group theory and research, “Assessing Theory and Research on Groups: What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know,” which was launched in 1998.¹ The goal of this project was to conduct an assessment and evaluation of the current state of knowledge on small groups and to link disparate areas and foster integrative positions in group theory and research.² Group researchers from diverse fields met together at Texas A&M University in October 2001 to assess the current status of theory and to take stock of the major findings in group research. A second conference was held in November 2002 at Case Western Reserve University.

Prior to the conferences, the project-planning teams distilled a set of general theoretical perspectives from the multitude of models and theories advanced by various disciplines on small groups. Each general perspective had to meet the following criteria:

1. The perspective focused on purposive groups, broadly construed to include any type of group that has a goal. This included traditional work groups, such as factory and field crews, committees, teams, and task forces. It also included less traditional groups, such as support and therapy groups, educational groups, and clubs.
2. The perspective advanced a distinctive view of groups, group processes, and group outcomes.
3. Research on the perspective had been conducted in more than one discipline.
4. The perspective had the potential for application in multiple disciplines, even some that had not previously employed it.
5. Contemporary scholars working with the perspective could be identified.

Seven interdisciplinary perspectives were defined in advance of the first conference held at Texas A&M University: the functional perspective, the psychodynamic perspective, the social identity perspective, the power-status-conflict perspective, the evolutionary perspective, the symbolic-interpretive perspective, and the change-dynamics perspective. Subsequent discussion among the editors of this volume suggested that two additional perspectives, which have emerged in recent years, should be added: the feminist and network perspectives.³

Organization of This Volume

The book is organized around the nine theoretical perspectives. Each of these perspectives is described in a chapter written by an author team composed of experts who have conducted independent research within that perspective. Each expert represents a different “take” on that perspective, and several fields are represented within most author teams. Each author team prepared a chapter that describes their theoretical perspective and the various theories that the perspective subsumes and summarizes relevant research findings from that perspective. These chapters form the core of this book. In addition to this introductory chapter, there is also a concluding chapter on touchstone themes that run through the chapters, unifying and differentiating them.

In the remainder of this chapter, we will introduce the nine broad theoretical perspectives on groups. We will briefly summarize the general approach to the study of groups taken by each perspective. We will then offer some observations about the theoretical perspectives as a whole.

Theoretical Perspectives on Groups

The dictionary defines perspective as “a specific point of view in understanding things or events” (Guralnik, 1980, p. 1062). Each of the nine perspectives offers the mind’s eye a different view of groups. Just as each spectator may notice different aspects of the landscape from the same overlook, so specific theories within each perspective may differ to some degree. On the whole, however, theories within each perspective bear a distinct resemblance in their basic assumptions about what is important in groups and in the explanations and understandings they offer. The nine perspectives can be characterized in terms of how they explain group processes and outcomes; in terms of the types of inputs, processes, and outcomes they focus on; and in terms of the relative emphasis they place on input, process, and outcome variables.

The functional perspective is “a normative approach to describing and predicting group performance that focuses on the functions of inputs and/or processes” in groups (Chapter 2, this volume). It is characterized by the assumption that groups are goal oriented and that group performance in meeting goals varies and can be evaluated. Functional researchers attempt to identify the group behaviors and activities that promote and detract from effective performance. Inputs that influence group functions include the nature of the group’s task, the internal structure of the group, group cohesiveness, group composition, and the group’s environment. In some theories, these inputs are contingencies that influence the specific functions required for group effectiveness, whereas in others, the inputs determine which functions or activities the group enacts. Outputs considered in functional theories include group effectiveness as measured by productivity, efficiency, and quality; leadership effectiveness; and satisfaction with the group outcomes. The functional perspective accords equal priority to all terms in the input-process-output chain. This is understandable, because the input-process-output formulation was first applied in functional research.

The functional perspective has produced a greater number of studies than any other. Theories and lines of research developed within this perspective include the functional theory of group decision making (Gouran & Hirokawa, 1996), social combination models of group decision making (Davis, 1973), groupthink (Janis, 1982), collective information processing (Stasser & Titus, 1985), and group boundary spanning (Ancona & Caldwell, 1992).

The psychodynamic perspective is an approach to the study of groups that focuses on the relationship between the emotional, nonconscious processes and the conscious, rational processes of interpersonal interaction. It assumes that the existence of any group can be explained by the human instinct to combine spontaneously with others as a means to ensure species survival through protection and procreation. These primitive instincts are driven by emotions, and the resulting emotional dynamics remain part of all human social interaction. Key inputs for this perspective are the history of the group and its members, particularly unresolved problems or projects. Important processes include: leader-member dynamics revolving around dependence, independence, interdependence, and counterdependence; member attempts to position themselves in the group to address problems or needs; the development of group fantasies; and group orientations such as fight, flight, and engagement behaviors. As these processes suggest, the affective and emotional side of groups is a main focus of the psychodynamic perspective. Meaningful outcomes for psychodynamic theories include member and group growth and development and satisfaction of member and group needs. Psychodynamic theories tend to emphasize process and outcomes and place inputs in a secondary position. Given the multitude of factors that can shape group dynamics, these theories tend to work backward from process and outcomes to inputs, deducing which inputs are important from analysis of group processes and their link to outcomes.

Research in this perspective can be traced back to the writings of Freud (1920) and his followers. Bales (Bales & Cohen, 1979) incorporated psychodynamic elements, particularly the concept of group fantasy, into a functional theory of groups, culminating in the development of SYMLOG (Systematic Multilevel Observation of Groups) system and theory. Research using SYMLOG continues to flourish. Building on Bales’s work, Bormann (1996) developed another type of fantasy theme analysis that emphasized the role of symbolism and rhetorical processes in the constitution of groups. Bion’s (1961) Experiences in Groups and Other Papers proved to be another watershed work in this area, outlining a dynamic analysis of group orientations in terms of fight-flight behavior and engagement with core issues. A large group of scholars built on this work, combining Bion’s insights with those of the later Freudians.

The social identity perspective explains groups in terms of members’ sense of the social groups to which they belong, their identification with these groups, the social identity they construct based on this identification, and the dynamics between ingroups and outgroups driven by social identity. The primary focus of social identity theory is the relations between different social groups, but it has also proven useful for understanding within-group dynamics. Important inputs for social identity theory include the structure of the surrounding society, culture, member characteristics, and cues that make group versus individual identity salient. Key processes include self-categorization, depersonalization, inclusion/exclusion, social influence, stereotyping, and intergroup conflict. Relevant outputs for social identity theory include member self-concept, group cohesiveness, loyalty, turnover, conformity, and social loafing.

Social identity theory has generated a large body of research focused on individual processes such as prejudice and social judgment as shaped by large social categories, such as gender, racial groups, and nations. Most social identity research focuses on intergroup relations, and it has important implications for understanding small groups. Social identity scholars have investigated social identity processes involved in deindividuation (Reicher, Spears, & Postmes, 1995), group cohesion (Abrams, Marques, Bown, & Henson, 2000), social influence (Turner, 1991), leadership (Hogg, Hains, & Mason, 1998), decision making (Hogg, 1996), and computer-mediated communication (Spears & Lea, 1994).

The conflict-power-status perspective explains groups in terms of the dynamics of power, status, resources, and social relationships and the group structures associated with these processes. Theories in this perspective generally assume there are inequalities among members in terms of resources, status, and power and focus on how these inequalities are generated and reproduced and how they influence group processes and outcomes. Influence, conflict management, negotiation, consensus building, and distribution of resources are important processes studied by the theories within this perspective. Important inputs include status outside the group, resources, existing status and power structures in the group, and the type of interdependence among members. Key outputs include distribution of valued resources among members, realization of members’ interests, group performance, member satisfaction, and changes in status and resource control. Input and process are the two elements most emphasized by theories in this perspective. Inputs determine members’ initial positions (e.g., their initial status, their tendency to compete versus cooperate) and influence group processes. Group processes often have their own dynamics and determine outcomes, which may include changes in the input structures.

A variety of theories and research streams in political science, social psychology, and sociology exemplify the conflict-power-status perspective, including social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959), social dilemma research (Komorita & Parks, 1995; Ostrom, 1990), expectation states theory (Berger, Wagner, & Zelditch, 1992; Knottnerus, 1997), and power dependence theory (Emerson, 1962). These theories focus on phenomena such as mixed-motive situations, coalitions, conflict management, and the impact of diversity. In Chapter 5 of this volume, Lovaglia, Mannix, Samuelson, Sell, and Wilson advance a model of institutional rules as a possible route to integrating the work within this broad perspective.

The symbolic-interpretive perspective focuses on the social construction of groups and offers explanations based on the meaning groups have for their members. Social interaction, language, symbols, and individual and collective interpretative schemes are common elements in symbolic-interpretive theories. These theories posit that processes such as fantasy chaining, structuration, dialectics, and sense making underlie the creation, growth, maintenance, and demise of groups. They argue that such processes frame and shape other group phenomena, including work, conflict, power and status dynamics, and stability and change. Inputs are viewed primarily as conditions or stimuli for symbolic and interpretive processes and are thus accorded less attention in these theories than processes. Outcomes in these theories include some directly related to symbolic-interpretive processes, such as a common vision, group identity, internal group structures, and group boundaries, as well as effectiveness, group cohesion, and member satisfaction. These latter outcomes are mediated by the former; for example, the cohesiveness of the group depends ...

Table of contents

• Cover Page
• Title Page
• Copyright Page
• Contents
• Preface
• 1. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Small Groups
• 2. A Look at Groups From the Functional Perspective
• 3. Psychodynamic Perspectives on Small Groups
• 4. The Social Identity Perspective on Small Groups
• 5. Conflict, Power, and Status in Groups
• 6. The Symbolic-Interpretive Perspective of Group Life
• 7. Understanding Groups From a Feminist Perspective
• 8. The Network Perspective on Small Groups: Theory and Research
• 9. Traces, Trajectories, and Timing: The Temporal Perspective on Groups
• 10. Small Groups From an Evolutionary Perspective
• 11. Touchstones: A Framework for Comparing Premises of Nine Integrative Perspectives on Groups
• Author Index
• Subject Index
• About the Editors
• About the Contributors