Multiculturalism, Identity and Difference

Experiences of Culture Contact

Elke Murdock

• Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan
• Year: 2016
• Print ISBN: 9781137596789
• eBook ISBN: 9781137596796
• Topic: Social Sciences
• Subtopic: Social Psychology
• Index: Social Sciences

Multicultural societies are a phenomenon that can be increasingly observed worldwide. This book focuses on the question of how individuals living within a multicultural society experience the meeting of cultures. Murdock combines both a thorough review of the theoretical body of research concerning multiculturalism and related concepts such as globalization, acculturation and biculturalism with specific empirical research evidence, providing new insights into factors which shape our openness towards a plurally composed society. Multiculturalism, Identity and Difference contains original research conducted within the 'natural laboratory' that multilingual, multicultural Luxembourg provides. This is a country where the foreign population makes up nearly half of the total population. In the era of globalization, culture contact is a daily occurrence and this book makes a contribution to the questions of if and how culture contact can be experienced as an opportunity rather than a threat by individuals.

 

© The Author(s) 2016

Elke MurdockMulticulturalism, Identity and DifferencePalgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series10.1057/978-1-137-59679-6_1

Begin Abstract

1. Introduction

Elke Murdock¹

(1)

University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg

End Abstract

International Scope

The United Nation’s (2009) migration report affirms “that international migration is a growing phenomenon, both in scope and in complexity, affecting virtually all countries in the world” (p. 37). The report notes further that the rise in global mobility, the growing complexity of migratory patterns and its impact on countries, migrants, families and communities have all contributed to international migration becoming a priority for the international community. Castles and Miller (2009) have in fact described the twenty-first century as “the age of migration.” According to the United Nation’s (2013) report, the number of international migrants was estimated at 232 million in 2013, representing about 3 % of the world population. As Skeldon (2013) pointed out, the global migration system has changed over recent decades with regard to the origins and destinations, as well as the volume and types of migrants. As he explained, countries that were once origins of migration became destinations of migrants and vice versa. In the twentieth century Europe was a major area of emigration and in the course of the twenty-first century has become the target for immigration (and within Europe Luxembourg is a case in point). A consequence is that most European countries, even those as far north as Iceland now have significant minority immigrant populations (http://​www.​migrationpolicy.​org/​programs/​data-hub/​international-migration-statistics). Moran (2011) argued that multiculturalism has been used as a nation-building tool in “classical” immigration countries such as Australia, building an inclusive national identity whilst embracing diversity. Skeldon (2013) concluded that in these settler societies where immigration from many different origins has been a central policy and integral part of nation-building, cultural diversity has become part of the social fabric. Yet concerns about multiculturalism are now emerging in Asian countries such as China, Japan and the Republic of Korea where the proportion of foreigners is still very small. On the one hand there is European unification, globalization and immigration and at the same time we observe a return and revitalization of strong national and regional identities (Schmidt-Denter, 2008). Within Europe several countries have seen a rise in the popularity of right-wing parties, which tend to use strong anti-immigration rhetoric (Fischer, 2016). Therefore it is important to understand the dynamics of culture contact—especially from the perspective of a receiving society. As noted in a recent Council of Europe Report (2016) increased migration, growing diversity and globalization have a profound effect on people’s identities. The central theme of this book is an exploration of what it means for the individual to live in a multicultural society. In this, Luxembourg is used as a case study as Luxembourg can be described as “super-diverse” as defined by Vertovec (2007). The “diversification of diversity” can be illustrated by the “natural laboratory” Luxembourg provides: Luxembourg’s population does not only represent a wide range of nationalities, but more importantly, Luxembourg has experienced and still experiences different immigration waves. As a result, recent arrivals, first, second and third generation immigrants live side by side. These immigrants have divergent labour market experiences and also discrete gender and age profiles. Specific patterns of spatial distribution can also be observed including local area responses. As Vertovec (2007) noted, the interplay of these factors result in “the notion of ‘super-diversity’” (p. 1025). In terms of surface area (2586 km²) and total population (563,000 inhabitants) Luxembourg may seem small. Nestled in the heart of Europe between Belgium, France and Germany, Luxembourg is a founding member of the European Union, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the United Nations and NATO. Luxembourg also hosts several key EU institutions including the Court of Justice, the Court of Auditors, the European Investment Bank, the secretariat of the European Parliament and several European Commission services. Thus Luxembourg plays an important role on the European and international political stage. Notably, 46 % of the total population comes from 170 countries and 71 % of the active population are foreign nationals (http://​www.​surprisinglux.​com). The lessons learnt within this country with a large, diverse immigrant population can be applied to other contexts and countries.

Outline

Some markers about Luxembourg were given above, but given Luxembourg’s centrality to this book I will start out with providing some more contextual information. Also on theoretical grounds it is important to include contextual information: In his Bioecological Model Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (1986) has highlighted the influence of the external environment on the human development (see Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1

Bioecological Model (Source: Bronfenbrenner, 1986)

The flow of my analysis will follow first the direction from the outside to the core: The context or macro environment will be given in Chap. 2, followed by an explanation of relevant research concepts in Chap. 3 and continuing with motivation and identity processes located at the core at the individual level (Chap. 4). After laying this groundwork, the flow is then from the core to the outside: The focus of Chap. 5 is the negotiation of two or more (national) identities within one individual whilst Chap. 6 concerns the individual living in a multicultural context.

In Chap. 2 I will start out by giving an overview of Luxembourg’s more recent history, consistent with chronosystem models (Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994). Within its current borders Luxembourg has only existed since 1839 and the Luxembourg “national identity” is but a twentieth-century invention. These historical developments are reflected in the macrosystem, the attitudes and ideologies of the country. Luxembourg has experienced several immigration waves which can be distinguished by permanency, country of origin and target industry. In terms of demographics, the Luxembourg of today is a diverse society—even super-diverse as alluded to above. This increasingly multicultural composition has an impact at societal level, shaping economic, political and cultural activities and resources—the exosystem. At government level, for example, there has been a reaction to the increasing number of foreigners in the form of the revision of the Luxembourg Law on Nationality which came into force in 2009. One key change introduced by the new law is that it allows for dual nationality, if certain conditions are met. Today, there is a debate whether the hurdles in form of residence requirement and level of language competence are too high, but in principle, the legislation allows for dual nationality. This is an example for a policy at societal level to multiculturalism. Another example for a policy initiative is the external branding by the capital, Ville de Luxembourg (VdL), which has coined the slogan multiplicity. To the outside world, the Ville de Luxembourg uses the plural composition of the town to show its openness towards diversity, embracing different cultures (“Une identité forte: multiplicity.” http://​www.​vdl.​lu). Thus in its external communication, the multicultural composition is presented as desirable, a synonym for moving forward, modernity and openness. Yet what are the individual-level responses to the multicultural society? What is the native population’s attitude towards the culturally heterogeneous composed society? These questions are addressed in empirical research. It should also be noted that even within a globalizing world, Luxembourg takes an exceptional position with a foreign population percentage of 46 % (Statec, 2015). Within the European Union, relative to the size of the resident population, Luxembourg has the highest percentage of immigrants per capita (Eurostat, 2011). Within a comparatively short period of time, in less than 200 years, Luxembourg has transformed from being a relatively poor, agrarian country of emigration to becoming a wealthy, sovereign state and target country for immigration. Luxembourg is also a country with three officially recognized national languages. The three languages, Lëtzebuergesch, French and German, are spoken throughout the country, with Lëtzebuergesch being the national language. Language competence plays an important role within this context, so much so that the ability to speak Luxembourgish was cited as the most important criterion for being Luxembourgish in a survey amongst Luxembourg nationals (TNS Ilres, 2007). “Speaking Luxembourgish” was mentioned as a criterion for being Luxembourgish ahead of “being born in Luxembourg” and “being born to parents of Luxembourgish origin.” Thus the simple question of who is a Luxembourger is actually quite difficult to answer. Official statistics will refer to the passport country—but even that will become more complex with the rise in dual citizenship. Subjective nationality is much harder to ascertain—it is in the mind of the beholder. I distinguish between Luxembourgers and Non-Luxembourgers in the full knowledge that this is an imperfect solution. The self-definition in terms of nationality was the explicit subject at one of the empirical studies carried out in Luxembourg and the simple question produced quite complex answers—which in turn is a reflection of living in a multicultural society. In summary, Luxembourg can be described as a “natural laboratory” to study several phenomena related to multiculturalism at societal and individual level.

Following on from the description of Luxembourg’s macro environment, I will firstly provide a review of the theoretical body of research concerning multiculturalism, its origins and related concepts such as globalization and acculturation (Chap. 3). The origins of the concept multiculturalism will be explained, as well as current understandings and a “misleading” understanding of the concept. Immigration, multiculturalism and citizenship are understood to form a triad (Kymlicka, 2012) and therefore new models of citizenship will be briefly outlined. The effects of globalization can be felt even without moving to another country. There are different motivations for moving to another country and different types of migrants. Motivation and migrant type influence the acculturation challenges migrants face. The consequences of culture contact in all its facets are the focus of acculturation research. Historical roots of the concept of acculturation will be explained and a taxonomy of acculturation variables will be presented. The acculturation orientation integration will be examined in more detail, as this orientation is frequently cited as the most desirable acculturation outcome (Celenk & van de Vijver, 2014).

In Chap. 4 the challenges multicultural societie...

Table of contents

• Cover
• Frontmatter
• 1. Introduction
• 2. Luxembourg—In a Multicultural Context
• 3. Multiculturalism in Context
• 4. The Individual in a Multicultural Context
• 5. On Being Bicultural in a Multicultural Environment
• 6. On Living in a Multicultural Environment
• 7. Final Conclusions
• Backmatter