NOTES
Introduction
1. While the term mĂ©tissage (like âraceâ and âgenderâ) is anachronistic, it is used here (in preference to the English âmiscegenationâ with its explicitly biological connotations) to convey the full range of sexual and marital unions and procreation.
2. Throughout, sauvage will be used in preference to the English âsavageâ to retain the original French definition of the word as meaning wild or untamed. Notwithstanding critiques of âidentityâ as too protean (Brubaker and Cooper, âBeyond âIdentityâ â and Hodson, âWeird Scienceâ), it is this very quality that provides the flexibility needed for my analysis.
3. Aubert, â âThe Blood of Franceâ â; Belmessous, âAssimilation and Racialism.â
4. Havard and Vidal, Histoire de lâAmĂ©rique française.
5. Vidal, âAfricains et EuropĂ©ens au pays des Illinoisâ and âPrivate and State Violence Against African Slaves in Lower Louisianaâ; Ekberg, âBlack Slavery in Illinois, 1720â1765â and âBlack Slaves in the Illinois Country, 1721â1755â; also Heerman, âThat âaâcursed Illinois venture.â
6. Aubert, âThe Blood of Franceâ; Belmessous, âAssimilation and Racialismâ; Emily Clark, Masterless Mistresses; Dawdy, Building the Devilâs Empire; DuVal, The Native Ground; Jaenen, Friend and Foe; Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana; Ingersoll, Mammon and Manon in Early New Orleans; Spear, Race, Sex, and Social Order in Early New Orleans; Usner, Indians, Settlers, and Slaves in a Frontier Exchange Economy.
7. See, for example, Shoemaker, A Strange Likeness; Chaplin, Subject Matter; Kathleen M. Brown, âNative Americans and Early Modern Concepts of Race.â
8. Spear, âColonial Intimaciesâ and â âThey Need Wives.â â
9. DuPlessis, âCloth and the Emergence of the Atlantic Economyâ and âDefining a French Atlantic Empire: some material culture evidence,â in Augeron and DuPlessis, Fleuves et colonies, 291â300; Dean L. Anderson, âDocumentary and Archaeological Perspectives on European Trade Goodsâ and âThe Flow of European Trade Goods into the Western Great Lakes Region, 1715â1760â; DubĂ©, âLes Biens publics,â which stresses the importance of textile imports and see in particular Table 6.1 p. 321; Breen, Marketplace of Revolution, 56
10. See, for example, Glassie, âMeaningful Things and Appropriate Myths.â
11. Key works include Buckridge, The Language of Dress; Castro, âStrippedâ; DuPlessis, âCirculation des textiles et des valeurs dans la Nouvelle-Franceâ and âCirculation et appropriation des mouchoirs chez les colons et aborigĂšnesâ; Foster, New Raiments of Self; Little, â âShoot That Rogueâ â; Loren, The Archaeology of Clothing and Bodily Adornment in Colonial America; Mackie, âCultural Cross-Dressingâ; Ann Smart Martin, Buying into the World of Goods, esp. chap. 6; Maynard, Fashioned from Penury; Prude, âTo Look upon the âLower Sortâ â; Shannon, âDressing for Success on the Mohawk Frontierâ; Tobin, Picturing Imperial Power; Ulrich, âCloth, Clothing, and Early American Social Historyâ; Waldstreicher, âReading the Runawaysâ; White and White, Stylinâ; Sophie White, â âWearing Three or Four Handkerchiefs.â â
12. See, for example, Castro, âStrippedâ; and Haefeli and Sweeney, Captors and Captives, 145â63.
13. Caroline Weber, Queen of Fashion, 25â32. This was the custom throughout Europe; see, for example, Welch, âArt on the Edge,â 247â49.
14. Belmessous, âAssimilation and Racialismâ; âĂtre français en Nouvelle-Franceâ; and âDâun prĂ©jugĂ© culturel Ă un prĂ©jugĂ© racialâ; Havard, â âLes Forcer Ă devenir cytoyensâ â; Jaenen, âThe Frenchification and Evangelization of the Amerindians in the Seventeenth-Century New France,â Friend and Foe, and âMiscegenation in Eighteenth Century New Franceâ; Melzer, âThe Underside of Franceâs Civilizing Mission,â âThe Magic of French Culture,â and âLâHistoire oubliĂ©e de la colonisation française.â On the expression âfranciserâ (to Frenchify), see Belmessous, âAssimilation and Racialism,â 323 n. 7.
15. Belmessous, âĂtre français.â On Frenchness and French national identity in this period, see Bell, âRecent Works on Early Modern French National Identityâ; Sahlins, âFictions of a Catholic Franceâ; and the papers presented at the colloquium âĂtre et se penser Français: Nation, sentiment national et identitĂ©s dans le monde atlantique français du XVIIe au XIXe siĂšcle,â Centre dâĂtudes Nord-AmĂ©ricaines, Ăcole des Hautes Ătudes en Sciences Sociales, Paris, October 16â18, 2008.
16. Kupperman, âPresentment of Civility,â 193; see also Kupperman, âFear of Hot Climates in the Anglo-American Colonial Experienceâ and Indians and English, 41â76.
17. Aubert, â âThe Blood of France.â â
18. Sala-Molins, Le Code Noir ou Le calvaire de Canaan, 108â9.
19. Rushforth, â âA Little Flesh We Offer Youâ â and âSavage Bonds.â
20. My thanks to Guillaume Aubert for offering this nuance.
21. Aubert, â âThe Blood of France,â â 451.
22. On the repopulation of the Illinois tribes from the Ohio valley via the southern shores of Lake Michigan to the Upper Mississippi Valley, see Shackelford, âNavigating the Opportunities of New Worlds.â Shackelford argues that rather than being driven into the area by the threat of aggression from the Iroquois Confederacy (the orthodox explanation), Illinois Indians were in fact drawn by the possibilities for large-scale bison hunting consistent with their historic subsistence strategies. The precise genesis and meanings of the terms âIllinoisâ and âIlliniwekâ have remained open to debate; for two opposing views see Sleeper-Smith, Indian Women and French Men, 173 n. 15; and Bilodeau, âColonial Christianity and the Illinois Indians,â esp. 372 n. 12.
23. Margaret Kimball Brown, Cultural Transformations Among the Illinois; Bauxar, âHistory of the Illinois Areaâ; Callender, âIllinoisâ; also Bilodeau, âColonial Christianity.â
24. Settlement patterns in the Illinois Country are discussed by Ekberg, French Roots in the Illinois Country; Lessard, Mathieu, and Gouger, âPeuplement colonisateur au pays des Illinoisâ; see also Briggs, âLe Pays des Illinoisâ; Belting, Kaskaskia Under the French Regime; Giraud, A History of French Louisiana, 1:340â47; Richard White, The Middle Ground. For a comparative study that does not treat the Illinois Country in isolation from its Anglo neighbors, see Hinderaker, Elusive Empires.
25. On variations in her name and on the phoneme â8,â see Ekberg, âMarie Rouensa-8canic8e and the Foundations of French Illinois...