Chemistry
Organic Compounds
Organic compounds are molecules that contain carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen, and often other elements like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. They are the basis of life and are found in all living organisms. Organic compounds have diverse structures and functions, and they form the foundation of many important substances, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
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11 Key excerpts on "Organic Compounds"
eBook - PDFChemistry and the Chemical Industry
A Practical Guide for Non-Chemists
- Robert A. Smiley, Harold L. Jackson(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
35 Organic Chemistry Originally, organic chemistry referred to the study of chemicals and chemical processes associated with living organisms. Now, however, it is the study of all carbon-containing compounds, with the exception of carbonate salts and carbon oxides which are still included in the study of inOrganic Compounds. There are well over two million known Organic Compounds, almost 20 times more than all the other known chemicals combined. This large number is due to the unique capacity of carbon atoms to combine with other carbon atoms to form chains or rings. 3 36 Chemistry and the Chemical Industry ORGANIC CHEMISTRY The study of compounds containing the element carbon. Origin—compounds formed naturally by plants or animals. Wöhler (1828) synthesized urea (an organic compound found in human urine) from lead cyanate and ammonium hydroxide, neither of which are found in living matter. Organic vs. inorganic is a matter of definition rather than source. Organic chemistry is the study of compounds containing carbon and one or more other chemical elements. Many years ago the term “organic” was given to those compounds known to be formed by plants or animals. However, in 1828, Frederick Wöhler synthesized urea (an organic compound produced by animal life) from two inOrganic Compounds, lead cyanate and ammonium hydroxide. This showed that Organic Compounds do not have to come from a natural source, and, now by definition, Organic Compounds are those com-pounds that contain carbon (with the exception of amorphous carbon, graph-ite, diamond, the gases carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, metal carbo-nyls, and inorganic carbonates formed from carbon dioxide). Organic Chemistry 37 Organic Compounds Greater than 95% of all known chemicals contain carbon.
eBook - PDFFundamentals of Environmental and Toxicological Chemistry
Sustainable Science, Fourth Edition
- Stanley E. Manahan(Author)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
561 20 Organic Chemistry 20.1 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Most carbon-containing compounds are organic chemicals and are addressed by the subject of organic chemistry . Organic chemistry is a vast, diverse discipline because of the enormous number of Organic Compounds that exist as a consequence of the versatile bonding capabilities of carbon. Such diversity is due to the ability of carbon atoms to bond to each other through single (two shared electrons) bonds, double (four shared electrons) bonds, and triple (six shared electrons) bonds in a limitless variety of straight chains, branched chains, and rings. Among organic chemicals are included the majority of important industrial compounds, syn-thetic polymers, agricultural chemicals, biological materials, and most substances that are of con-cern because of their toxicities and other hazards. Pollution of the water, air, and soil environments by organic chemicals is an area of significant concern. Chemically, most Organic Compounds can be divided among hydrocarbons, oxygen-containing compounds, nitrogen-containing compounds, sulfur-containing compounds, organohalides, phosphorus-containing compounds, or combinations of these kinds of compounds. Each of these classes of Organic Compounds is discussed briefly in this chapter. All Organic Compounds of course contain carbon. Virtually all also contain hydrogen and have at least one C–H bond. The simplest Organic Compounds, and those easiest to understand, are those that contain only hydrogen and carbon. These compounds are called hydrocarbons and are addressed first among the Organic Compounds discussed in this chapter. Hydrocarbons are used here to illustrate some of the most fundamental points of organic chemistry, including organic formulas, structures, and names. 20.1.1 M OLECULAR G EOMETRY IN O RGANIC C HEMISTRY The three-dimensional shape of a molecule, that is, its molecular geometry, is particularly important in organic chemistry.
eBook - PDF- Rose Marie O. Mendoza(Author)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Arcler Press(Publisher)
Fundamentals of Organic Compounds and Their Characteristics Chapter 1 CONTENTS 1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................ 2 1.2. Historical Background ........................................................................ 2 1.3. Carbon Bonding ................................................................................. 4 1.4. Organic Functional Groups ................................................................ 6 1.5. Spectroscopy of the Organic Compounds ......................................... 17 References ............................................................................................... 27 Elementary Organic Spectroscopy 2 1.1. INTRODUCTION Generally, Organic Compounds are the substances which contain carbon (C). The carbon atoms are responsible for the main structural framework which generates the vast range of the Organic Compounds. All the things on Earth (and probably elsewhere in-universe) which can be defined as living have the crucial dependence on the Organic Compounds. Biomolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats are organic. The vital substances such as chlorophyll, hemoglobin, hormones, enzymes, and vitamins are also Organic Compounds. Other materials which add to the health, comfort or convenience of the humans are composed of the Organic Compounds, including the clothing made of silk, cotton, wool, and synthetic fibers. Fuels and its sources such as petroleum, wood, natural gas and coal; components of the protective coatings like enamels, paints, varnishes, and lacquers; antibiotics and the synthetic drugs; dyes; plastics; natural and the synthetic rubber; and pesticides are composed of the Organic Compounds (Fang et al., 2001).
eBook - ePubBiorenewable Resources
Engineering New Products from Agriculture
- Robert C. Brown, Tristan R. Brown(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Wiley-Blackwell(Publisher)
CHAPTER 3 Organic Chemistry 3.1 IntroductionOrganic chemistry provides the foundation for understanding the transformation of plant materials into biofuels and biobased products. This chapter provides an overview to the subject for readers who are not familiar with the topic or require a brief review. More detailed descriptions can be found in the references at the end of this chapter.The original distinction between inorganic and Organic Compounds was their source in nature. InOrganic Compounds were derived from mineral sources, whereas Organic Compounds were obtained from plants or animals. Advances in chemical synthesis since the eighteenth century have made obsolete these definitions: the vast majority of organic chemicals commercially produced today are made from petroleum. The common feature of Organic Compounds is a skeleton of carbon atoms that include lesser amounts of other atoms, especially hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, but also sulfur, phosphorus, and halides.The high chemical valence of carbon allows for complex structures and large numbers of Organic Compounds. These include compounds consisting of chains of carbon atoms, referred to as acyclic or aliphatic compounds, and compounds containing rings of carbon atoms, known as carbocyclic or simply cyclic compounds. Some of these rings contain at least one atom that is not carbon (known as heteroatoms). These compounds are called heterocyclic compounds. Carbocyclic compounds are further classified as either aromatic compounds, in which electrons are shared among atoms to produce a particularly stable ring, or alicyclic compounds, which includes all non-aromatic cyclic compounds.3.2 Classification of ReactionsA variety of reactions can occur among Organic Compounds. Addition reactions occur when two reactants combine to give a single product. Elimination reactions involve the splitting of a single compound into two compounds. Most elimination reactions form a product with a double bond containing the majority of the atoms found in the reactant. Substitution reactions involve replacement of one atom or group of atoms by a second atom or group of atoms. Hydrolysis is a particularly important instance of substitution reactions involving the action of water in splitting a large reactant molecule into two smaller product molecules. One product molecule is bonded to the hydrogen atom from the water, while the other product molecule is bonded to the hydroxyl group derived from the water. Condensation reactions involve two reactants combining to form one larger product with the simultaneous formation of a second, smaller product. Dehydration is a particularly important instance of condensation reactions in which water is the second, smaller product. Note that dehydration is the opposite of hydrolysis. Rearrangement
eBook - PDF- John Kenkel(Author)
- 2010(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344 Chemistry of Carbon and Its Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Hybridization of Orbitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Geometry around Bonded Carbon Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . .346 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Summaries of Hydrocarbon and Oxygen Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Homework Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 14 Chapter Organic Chemicals Basic Chemistry Concepts and Exercises 344 14.1 Introduction Organic chemistry is the chemistry of those compounds (organic chemicals) that are derived from living systems or systems that were once living . You might have heard the expression that life on Earth is carbon-based . This means that all organic chemicals have carbon in their structure and that there are relatively very few compounds of carbon that are not organic (e .g, CO 2 , CO, and metal carbonates and carbides) . Therefore we can also say that organic chemistry is the chemistry of compounds of carbon . Organic chemicals make up the vast majority of all compounds that exist, so this is a very important branch of chemistry . Our major source of Organic Compounds is petroleum . Petroleum results from the decay of living systems over time . It is interesting to imagine that the trees, grasses, animals, and other living things from years past have been folded into the Earth and have decayed to produce the pockets of crude oil under the surface of the Earth worldwide . Chemicals found in crude oil have been useful for so many of our daily interactions with mat-ter .
eBook - PDFChemistry
The Molecular Nature of Matter
- James E. Brady, Neil D. Jespersen, Alison Hyslop(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- Wiley(Publisher)
At the molecular level of life, nature uses compounds of carbon. The amazing variety of living systems, down to the uniqueness of each individual, is possible largely because of the prop- erties of this element. In this chapter we will introduce you to organic chemistry. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After reading this chapter, you should be able to: • write structural formulas for Organic Compounds, highlighting their functional groups • describe the nomenclature rules and major reactions of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and aromatic hydrocarbons • describe the names and typical reactions of common alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters • describe the names and typical reactions of amines and amides • explain the structures, synthesis, and properties of polymers • name common carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins and describe their properties • explain how the structures of DNA and RNA enable the transmission of genetic information and the synthesis of proteins 22.1 | Organic Structures and Functional Groups Organic chemistry is the study of the preparation, properties, and reactions of those compounds of carbon not classified as inorganic. The latter include the oxides of carbon, the bicarbonates and carbonates of metal ions, the metal cyanides, and a handful of other compounds. There are tens of millions of known carbon compounds, and all but a very few are classified as organic. Uniqueness of the Element Carbon What makes the existence of so many Organic Compounds possible is the ability of carbon atoms to form strong covalent bonds to each other while at the same time bonding strongly to atoms of other nonmetals. For example, molecules in the plastic polyvinylchloride, which is used to make the polymer beads in the chapter-opening photograph, have carbon chains that are thousands of carbon atoms long, with hydrogen and chlorine atoms attached to the carbon atoms. polyvinylchloride (small segment of one molecule) C C C H H etc.
eBook - PDF- Stephen G Rees-Jones(Author)
- 1987(Publication Date)
- Elsevier Science(Publisher)
1 Basic organic chemistry Atoms of carbon form strong bonds with other carbon atoms and with those of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; the majority of the materials dealt with in this book are made up of compounds formed from these elements. Carbon also combines with the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, in diminishing order of the strength of the carbon-halogen bond), with sulphur and phosphorus, and with many other elements including some of the metals, though compounds of this last type are often unstable or very reactive. Enormous numbers of individual Organic Compounds are known and there is no theoretical limit as to how many could, or may in fact, exist. Part of the reason for this is that carbon is tetravalent, i.e. each carbon atom can form bonds with up to four other atoms. Rather than attempt a formal presentation of the theory of chemical bonding (which is to be found in all organic chemistry textbooks) only some aspects of it will be touched on in this book. Initially it will suffice to say that Organic Compounds can be represented on paper, and by models, as if they were made up of particulate atoms linked by single or multiple bonds of specific length (represented by lines in structural formulae on paper, by wires or rods in models), arranged in a space of three dimensions. While simplistic and naive-seeming, such a representation of the structures of compounds is nevertheless of extraordinary value in explaining and predicting properties and chemical behaviour. Most of the great achievements of synthetic organic chemistry are the result of visualizing molecular structure in such a way, alongside a concomitant understanding of the properties and reactions of functionalgroups: the hydro xyl group ( — OH), the carboxyl group (—COOH), the amino group (—NH 2 ) etc. The basic composition of a compound is expressed as its empirical formula.
eBook - PDF- Ramesh Chandra, Snigdha Singh, Aarushi Singh(Authors)
- 2019(Publication Date)
- Arcler Press(Publisher)
Organic Compounds and Their Nomenclature 1 CONTENTS 1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................ 2 1.2. The Chemical Bond ............................................................................ 3 1.3. Bonding In Carbon Compounds .......................................................... 7 1.4. Organic Structures ............................................................................ 13 1.5. Classification of Organic Compounds ............................................... 16 1.6. Organic Nomenclature ..................................................................... 16 1.7. Name Reactions ............................................................................... 18 1.8. Nomenclature of Organic Compounds ............................................. 20 References ............................................................................................... 34 Organic Reactions and their nomenclature 2 1.1. INTRODUCTION The branch of chemistry involving the study of carbon as well as its compounds is known as Organic chemistry. Presently, carbon is famous to produce apparently infinite number of compounds. We use Organic Compounds excessively in our daily lives in agriculture, medicine, and general life. In principle (Oparin, 1923), the beginning of organic chemistry might be with the big bang when the components of nitrogen, ammonia, CO 2 , and methane combined to produce amino acids. This experiment has already been verified in the laboratory (Miller, 1950). Egyptians and Romans made use of organic chemicals in ancient times to produce medicines, dyes, and poisons from natural sources; however, the chemical composition of the substances was still not known (Brooke, 1968). In the late 16th century, Organic Compounds in their pure state, were isolated from nature (Cassebaum & Kauffman, 1976).
eBook - PDF- Rose Marie O. Mendoza(Author)
- 2023(Publication Date)
- Arcler Press(Publisher)
INTRODUCTION TO INOrganic Compounds 1 CONTENTS 1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................ 2 1.2. Inorganic Chemistry and InOrganic Compounds ................................. 4 1.3. Classification of InOrganic Compounds ............................................... 6 1.4. Some Subdivisions of Inorganic Chemistry........................................ 14 1.5. Types of Reactions and Examples of InOrganic Compounds............... 16 1.6. Inorganic Chemistry’s Applications ................................................... 16 References ............................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER An Overview of InOrganic Compounds 2 1.1. INTRODUCTION When two or more chemical elements combine (except Carbon to Hydrogen) to form another substance in nearly definite and whole number proportions, the term “inorganic compound” is the thing in mind. Though this universal definition was not so strict since carbon compounds as carbides, carbonates, cyanides as well as graphite, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are classified inorganic, there are some exceptions to rules in chemistry that are considered (which will be discussed in the following chapters) as a result of techniques and processes employed to realize the criteria and implement the protocol. One popular technique depends on the presence of specific components. For instance, halides are composed of more than halogen atoms, hydrides are composed of more than one hydrogen atom, and oxides are composed of more than one oxygen atom (Hasenknopf, 2005). Organic complexes are defined as those that contain carbon atoms in their backbone, while all other compounds are categorized as inorganic. As the term implies, organometallic complexes are organic molecules that are covalently linked to metal atoms (Figure 1.1).
- Aniruddha Datta, Edward R. Dougherty(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
2 Review of Organic Chemistry In this chapter, we provide a brief introduction to organic chemistry. The chemical properties of biological molecules play a crucial role in making all known life possible and so any discussion of molecular biology would have to necessarily include some discussion of organic chemistry. Although the dis-cussion here is far from exhaustive, it is essentially self-contained and should provide a good introduction to anyone who has had some exposure to basic chemistry in the past. For a more detailed treatment, the reader is referred to [2]. Matter is made up of combinations of elements — substances such as hydro-gen or carbon that cannot be broken down or converted into other substances by chemical means. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that still retains its distinctive chemical properties. Molecules are formed by two or more atoms of the same element or of different elements combining together in a chemical fashion. An atom is made up of three kinds of subatomic parti-cles: protons (mass = 1, charge = +1); neutrons (mass = 1, charge = 0); and electrons (mass 0, charge = − 1). Protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus of the atom while electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain orbits. Each element has a fixed number of protons in the nucleus of each of its atoms and this number is referred to as the atomic number . We next list a few elements that occur over and over again in organic molecules, along with their atomic numbers: hydrogen (H) has an atomic number of 1; oxygen (O) has an atomic number of 8; carbon (C) has an atomic number of 6; nitrogen (N) has an atomic number of 7; phosphorous (P) has an atomic number of 15; sodium (Na) has an atomic number of 11; and calcium (Ca) has an atomic number of 20. The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of a particular element is referred to as its atomic weight . The hydrogen atom has only one proton and one electron and so its atomic weight is 1.
eBook - ePub- Stephen D. Killops, Vanessa J. Killops(Authors)
- 2013(Publication Date)
- Wiley-Blackwell(Publisher)
2
Chemical composition of organic matter
2.1 Structure of natural products
2.1.1 Introduction
Having established the major contributors to sedimentary organic matter in Chapter 1, it is important to consider their chemical composition in order to understand the changes that result in the fossil forms of carbon preserved in ancient sediments. This also helps us to understand the behaviour of man-made compounds in the environment. A comprehensive study of natural products would require many volumes the size of this book (e.g. Barton & Nakanishi 1999), so we confine our review to those of major geochemical importance. All organisms are composed of the same basic chemical classes, the most important of which, geochemically, are carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. In addition, higher plants contain significant quantities of lignin, a major component of their supportive tissue. Lipids are believed to play a dominant role in petroleum formation and so organisms relatively rich in lipids, such as the plankton (c .10% lipids, dry wt), are quantitatively very important contributors to oil source rocks.In the following sections we review the compositions of the main chemical classes and their biochemical functions. These functions are related to the structure and shape of the basic carbon skeleton of a molecule and the functional groups (see Box 2.1 ) attached to it.2.1.2 Bonding in Organic Compounds
Atoms within organic molecules are held together by covalent bonds, which are formed by adjacent atoms sharing pairs of electrons (usually each atom donates one of its outermost, or valency, electrons to the bond). Single, double and even triple bonds can be formed, in which one, two and three electron pairs are shared, respectively, although triple bonds are rare among natural products. Compounds where all the carbon atoms are joined together by single bonds are called saturated. Saturated hydrocarbons are termed alkanes and can be acyclic or cyclic. The simplest acyclic alkanes are the straight-chain compounds called normal alkanes (n
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