Biological Sciences
Anthrax
Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It can affect humans and animals and is known for its potential use as a biological weapon. Anthrax can be transmitted through contact with infected animals or their products, inhalation of spores, or ingestion of contaminated meat. Symptoms can vary depending on the route of exposure and can be severe if not treated promptly.
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eBook - PDF- Rachel L. Chin, Bradley W. Frazee, Zlatan Coralic(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Cambridge University Press(Publisher)
480 Chapter 480 Outline Introduction 480 Epidemiology 480 Naturally Occurring Anthrax 480 Anthrax as a Biological Weapon 481 Clinical Features 481 Inhalational Anthrax 481 Cutaneous Anthrax 482 Gastrointestinal Anthrax 482 Anthrax Meningitis 483 Anthrax and Pregnant Women 484 Differential Diagnosis 484 Inhalational Anthrax 484 Cutaneous Anthrax 484 Gastrointestinal Anthrax 484 Anthrax Meningitis 484 Laboratory and Radiographic Findings 484 Treatment and Prophylaxis 485 Treatment of Confirmed or Suspected Anthrax 485 Prophylaxis of Persons Exposed But Without Symptoms 485 Anthrax Vaccine 488 Complications and Admission Criteria 488 Infection Control 488 Decontamination 488 Pearls and Pitfalls 488 References 488 Additional Readings 489 Introduction Anthrax is an acute infection caused by Bacillus anthracis, a large, gram-positive, spore-forming, aerobic, encapsulated, rod-shaped bacterium. Spores germinate and form bacteria in nutrient-rich environments, whereas bacteria form spores in nutrient-poor environments. The Anthrax bacillus produces high levels of two toxins: edema toxin causes massive edema at the site of germination, and lethal toxin leads to sepsis. Severity of Anthrax disease depends on the route of infection and the presence of complications. Case fatality ranges from 5 to 95% if untreated. The Working Group for Civilian Biodefense considers B. anthracis to be one of the most serious biological threats. Anthrax has been weaponized and used. It can be fairly eas- ily disseminated to cause illness and death. Of the potential ways that B. anthracis could be used as a biological weapon, an aerosol release is expected to have the most severe medical and public health outcomes. Epidemiology Naturally Occurring Anthrax Reservoir The natural reservoir for B. anthracis is soil, and the predomi- nant hosts are herbivores (cattle, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, and others) that acquire infection from consuming contaminated soil or feed.
No longer available |Learn more- (Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- University Publications(Publisher)
________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Chapter 8 Weaponized Biological Agents Anthrax Anthrax Microphotograph of a Gram stain of the bacterium Bacillus anthracis , the cause of the Anthrax disease ICD-10 A22.minor ICD-9 022 DiseasesDB 1203 MedlinePlus 001325 eMedicine med/148 MeSH D000881 Anthrax is an acute disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis . Most forms of the disease are lethal, and it affects both humans and other animals. There are effective vaccines against Anthrax, and some forms of the disease respond well to antibiotic treatment. Like many other members of the genus Bacillus , Bacillus anthracis can form dormant endospores (often referred to as spores for short, but not to be confused with fungal spores) that are able to survive in harsh conditions for decades or even centuries. Such spores can be found on all continents, even Antarctica. When spores are inhaled, ingested, or come into contact with a skin lesion on a host they may reactivate and multiply rapidly. ________________________ WORLD TECHNOLOGIES ________________________ Anthrax commonly infects wild and domesticated herbivorous mammals that ingest or inhale the spores while grazing. Ingestion is thought to be the most common route by which herbivores contract Anthrax. Carnivores living in the same environment may become infected by consuming infected animals. Diseased animals can spread Anthrax to humans, either by direct contact (e.g., inoculation of infected blood to broken skin) or by consumption of a diseased animal's flesh. Anthrax spores can be produced in vitro and used as a biological weapon. Anthrax does not spread directly from one infected animal or person to another; it is spread by spores. These spores can be transported by clothing or shoes. The body of an animal that had active Anthrax at the time of death can also be a source of Anthrax spores.
eBook - ePubBSL3 and BSL4 Agents
Epidemiology, Microbiology and Practical Guidelines
- Mandy Elschner, Sally Cutler, Manfred Weidmann, Patrick Butaye(Authors)
- 2012(Publication Date)
- Wiley-Blackwell(Publisher)
Chapter 1 Bacillus anthracis : Anthrax Markus Antwerpen, Paola Pilo, Pierre Wattiau, Patrick Butaye, Joachim Frey, and Dimitrios Frangoulidis 1.1 Introduction Anthrax is an acute infection, caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. This zoonosis can be transmitted from grass-eating animals or their products to humans. However, it should be noted also that B. anthracis has all the characteristics of an environmentally adapted bacterium. Normally, Anthrax occurs in 95% of all human reported cases as cutaneous Anthrax, caused by bacteria penetrating the skin through wounds or micro fissures, but the bacterium can also manifest in the mouth and the intestinal tract. Infection of the lungs after inhalation of the spores is very rarely observed [1, 2]. B. anthracis is listed as a category A bioterrorism agent by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [3]. Besides the knowledge that B. anthracis has a history as a biological weapon in different national military programs, the general public became aware of this pathogen in 2001 when specially processed spore-filled letters were sent across the United States of America, killed five persons and infected up to 26. Since that time “white powder” became a synonym for the bioterroristic threat all over the world. In addition to this special aspect, Anthrax is still an endemic disease in many countries and sporadically occurs all over the world [2]. Today, imported wool or hides from ruminants (e.g., goats, sheep, cows) could be contaminated with spores and occasionally lead to infections in industrial (“wool sorting factory”) or private settings (Bongo drums) in countries where the disease is absent or infrequent [4, 5]. 1.2 Characteristics of the Agent B. anthracis is a nonmotile, Gram-positive, spore-forming aerobic rod, arranged in long chains within the tissue. Sporulation occurs in the presence of free oxygen and endospores develop in central positions that are considered as infectious particles
eBook - PDF- Garg, Sudhi Ranjan(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Daya Publishing House(Publisher)
2 Anthrax Sathish B. Shivachandra Clinical Bacteriology Laboratory, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar – 263 138 Anthrax, an acute and fatal bacterial disease, derives its name from the Greek word for coal – anthrakis , as it causes black coal like skin lesions. Caused by Bacillus anthracis organisms, the disease is known to affect herbivores predominantly, which is transmissible to humans. The knowledge of Anthrax as a disease and its importance as a zoonosis in the Greco-Roman world had been revealed through several classical texts and mythological sources and until the nineteenth century, numerous names with different linguistic origins were given to the disease throughout history. Among them, most common synonyms around the world are charbon, wool sorters disease, rag pickers disease, malignant carbuncle, and malignant pustule. The descriptions of Anthrax begin in antiquity, with the best ancient account by the Roman poet Virgil. During the 19th century, Anthrax organisms were involved in several important veterinary medical developments (Sternbach 2003). In 1870s, Robert Koch cultured B. anthracis and first established the microbial origin of an infectious disease which led to famous ‘Germ Theory’. In 1881, Louis Pasteur and Greenfield independently attenuated the organism and successfully developed vaccines for Anthrax in animals (Turnbull 1991). Since the earliest historical records until the development of an effective veterinary vaccine (Sterne 1937), together with the subsequent development This ebook is exclusively for this university only. Cannot be resold/distributed. of effective antibiotics, the disease has been one of the foremost causes of uncontrolled mortality in herbivores (cattle, sheep, goats, horses and pigs) worldwide. Humans are almost invariably known to contract Anthrax directly or indirectly from domestic animals.
eBook - PDFAerobiology
The Toxicology of Airborne Pathogens and Toxins
- Harry Salem, Sidney A Katz(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Royal Society of Chemistry(Publisher)
249 Bacillus anthracis: An Aerobiological Threat linked to a microorganism and to the life cycle of its etiological agent, Bacillus anthracis , confirmed the “germ theory” of disease. B. anthracis is a spore-form-ing bacterium whose spores are highly resistant to a variety of environmental conditions, such as heat, cold, ultraviolet and ionizing radiation, pressure and chemical agents. Both spores and vegetative cells of B. anthracis are the infectious forms and can cause the disease Anthrax in mammals, including humans. There are four clinical forms of human Anthrax based on the portal by which spores or cells enter the host, namely inhalational, cutaneous, gas-trointestinal and injectional. Inhalational Anthrax is the most serious form of the disease. 4,5 The high mortality rate, ease of aerosolization and resis-tance of its spores to environmental factors have made B. anthracis an attrac-tive biological weapon. During the era of offensive bioweapons development, advances were made in the weaponization and dissemination of B. anthracis spores. However, most nations signed the 1972 Biological Weapons Con-vention (BWC) treaty 6 and ceased their offensive research and development programs. As of January 2015, 173 countries were BWC members. 7 However, because of the threat that B. anthracis spores could be used as a weapon by terrorist groups or rogue nations, many countries have developed defen-sive programs to protect their soldiers and civilians. These programs and the 2001 Anthrax bioterrorism incident in the United States have increased awareness of Anthrax worldwide. As a result, unprecedented advances have been made in Anthrax diagnostics, Anthrax vaccine development, detection of B. anthracis spores in environmental matrices, decontamination technol-ogy and strategies for B. anthracis contamination and Anthrax incident waste management.
- Ronald J. Kendall, Steven M. Presley, Galen P. Austin, Philip N. Smith(Authors)
- 2008(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
Bacteria species listed in Table 2.1 of Chapter 2 are pathogenic agents known to cause human disease, and both Bacillus anthracis and Salmonella spp. have previously been used by terrorists. The causative agent for tularemia, Francisella tularensis , has been developed and tested as a bio-logical weapon (Ashford 2003). Pathogenic and Toxic Effects of Select Biological Threat Agents 231 9.2.1 A NTHRAX The pathogenic bacterium that causes the disease Anthrax is Bacillus anthracis and it is considered a Category A potential biological terrorism agent (CDC 2007). It is a Gram-positive, encapsulated, spore-forming species and is thus highly resis-tant to environmental extremes of humidity and temperature. In addition to its envi-ronmental stability, B. anthracis is a zoonosis, is highly infectious, and may cause relatively high mortality if untreated. Zoonotic Anthrax infections occur primarily in herbivores such as cattle, goats, horses, sheep, and swine and can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or animal products. The mortal-ity associated with Anthrax varies with the strain of B. anthracis . Human infection with Anthrax may occur through ingestion, inhalation, and cutaneous (skin) exposure to the spores or active form of B. anthracis . Utilizing the sporulated form of the bacterium, a finely milled powder may be aerosolized and inhaled. It is anticipated that a deliberate Anthrax attack would likely rely on the inhalation route of exposure since it is the most deadly, as demonstrated by the Anthrax attack delivered via the postal system in the fall of 2001 in the United States. As a result of those biological terrorism attacks, there was a 45% fatality rate (5 of 11) of those infected (Jernigan et al. 2002). When Anthrax spores enter the body, particularly when inhaled or ingested, they immediately become active, multiply, and release a three-part protein toxin, of which one part is deadly to humans and is referred to as the lethal factor.
eBook - PDF- Michael R. Conover, Rosanna M. Vail(Authors)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
79 7 Anthrax Although Anthrax has been recognized for centuries, little is known about the disease, and among the most basic questions frequently asked, but not yet answered, is how precisely do grazing and browsing animals acquire it. WHO (2008) 7.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY Anthrax is a disease caused by Bacillus anthracis , which are small (0.4–1.0 µm in length), rod-shaped bacteria. These pathogens are Gram positive and not capable of movement. When grown in blood or tissue samples, they appear as short chains of a few cells and have a square end similar to a railroad box car (Figure 7.1). Anthrax is mainly a disease of mammalian herbivores, but it can infect all warm-blooded animals, including humans. The bacteria are obligate pathogens and cannot multiply outside of a living animal host. The bacteria start producing spores when exposed to the atmosphere: conditions occur after an infected animal has died and body fluids leak from the carcass or when the carcass is opened by scavengers (hereafter, the carcasses of animals killed by Anthrax will be called Anthrax carcasses). It is these spores that allow B. anthracis to infect new hosts. Half the spore’s volume is taken up by the spore’s coat, which protects the spore from environmental extremes of temperature, pH, chemicals, and desiccation. Spores can survive in the environment until conditions are suitable for germination. These conditions, which would occur inside a mammal’s body, include high humidity, temperatures between 46°F and 113°F (8°C and 45°C), pH between 5 and 9, and the presence of amino acids (WHO 2008). The ability of Anthrax spores to survive for long periods of time is astound-ing. Spores prepared by Dr. Louis Pasteur were still viable when retested 68 years later. Viable spores were also recovered from horse hair used more than a century earlier to bind plaster in London buildings (WHO 2008).
- Dongyou Liu(Author)
- 2014(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
59 This bacterium forms spores (1–2 μ m in size) able to withstand several kinds of stresses that are usually lethal to vegetative cells, such as ultraviolet and ionizing radiation, heat, various chemicals, 60 and oxidative stress. 61 Anthrax is primarily a disease affect-ing herbivore animals, but it can be transmitted to all mam-mals including humans. Typically, animals become infected with B. anthracis by ingesting spores while grazing on con-taminated soils or feed but also through the skin by biting insects. 62 Transmission to humans occurs through different routes of entry of the spores 42 : (1) cutaneously by direct con-tact with infected animals or by handling infected animal products, (2) respiratory by inhalation of sufficient quan-tity of spores, (3) oropharyngeal and/or gastrointestinal by the ingestion of undercooked contaminated meat, and (4) recently, a fourth syndrome, referred to as “injectional Anthrax,” has emerged in injection drug users with the first case described in 2000 in a heroin user in Norway. 52 All forms of Anthrax could be fatal if not treated in due time, but the cutaneous form is often self-limiting. 56 The cutaneous Anthrax infection results in primary skin lesion corresponding to a painless, pruritic papule that appears at the following 3–5 days. The lesion develops in a vesicle that undergoes central necrosis and drying, leaving a characteris-tic black eschar surrounded by edema. After 1–2 weeks, the eschar dries and sloughs off. 42 In inhalational Anthrax, B. anthracis spores are inhaled and deposited in the alveoli, where they are then phagocy-tized by macrophages and carried to local mediastinal lymph nodes. Further, they germinate into vegetative forms, repli-cate, and produce hemorrhagic mediastinitis. 46 Inhalational Anthrax has a biphasic clinical course: flu-like symptoms with fever and nonproductive cough and myalgias that are developed by patients following an incubation period of approximately 4 days.
eBook - PDF- Rahman, H(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- Biotech(Publisher)
Chapter 3 Anthrax R. Apsana, G.B. Manjunathareddy and H. Rahman Introduction Anthrax has been known since antiquity. Anthrax is primarily a disease of the herbivores and occurs in almost all parts of the world. The disease has declined recently throughout the world as a result of the development of an effective vaccine and the use of antibiotics. The disease in man is still prevalent in many parts of Africa, Central and South America, the Indian subcontinent, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Thailand, turkey and Yugoslavia. A recent estimate by the World Health Organization (WHO) indicates a prevalence of 20, 000-100,000 cases of human Anthrax annually throughout the world. Anthrax is an acute disease of zoonotic importance caused by spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. It is primarily a disease of herbivores, although all warmblooded species are susceptible to an extent. The 'reservoir' of the disease is soil contaminated by spores in the recent past or even several decades ago. The disease occurs in all vertebrates but cattle, buffaloes and sheep are highly susceptible while horses and goats are less susceptible. In human beings, it the disease is manifested in different forms with cutaneous form being most common. Disease occurs throughout India, but some states are endemic and are recognized as Anthrax belts resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates. Majority of outbreaks are seen in warm and humid conditions like a rain after drought and predisposing factors like overcrowding, abrasions on oral mucosae or skin, coarse feeding and confined grazing make the animals more susceptible to disease. Infection in most domestic species arises mainly by ingestion of the spore (Schlingman et al., 1956) but occasionally outbreaks in horses arises from mechanical transmission by biting insects (Sen and Minett, 1944). Clinically and This ebook is exclusively for this university only. Cannot be resold/distributed.
eBook - PDF- Jim A. Davis, Barry R. Schneider, Jim A. Davis, Barry R. Schneider(Authors)
- 2004(Publication Date)
- Praeger(Publisher)
47 Disease-causing strains of Anthrax bacteria are characterized by three protein components that they produce. 48 These three components (protective antigen, lethal factor, and edema factor) combine to produce the two deadly toxins (edema toxin and lethal toxin) that cause damage to the human body. 49 In experimental ani- mal studies, once toxin levels reach a critical threshold, death occurs even if antibiotics are used to eliminate the bacteria. Thirty-three different strains of disease-producing Bacillus anthracishave been tested in guinea pigs, seven strains in rabbits, and four strains in rhesus monkeys; all testing in these animals confirms that the same toxins produce disease in animals as well as man. 50 In laboratories, Bacillus anthracis can be grown in such a way that the protective antigen can be isolated. This tech- nique has helped scientists to develop the current Food and Drug Adminis- tration (FDA)-approved vaccine that utilizes this key disease-mediating protein (protective antigen) to develop antibodies to prevent the disease. IS DOD JUSTIFIED IN LABELING Anthrax AS THE NUMBER-ONE BIOLOGICAL THREAT? Millions of dollars from the DOD budget are currently being spent to mitigate the potential effects of biological weapons. Because Anthrax is num- ber one on the list, it receives a large share of the counter-BW budget dol- lars. If DOD is focusing on the number-two threat, rather than on what is the most likely BW agent threat to our nation and military, we could be extremely vulnerable. Several factors support DOD's decision to focus on Anthrax, including the intermittent use of Anthrax in the twentieth century, the unique benefits of Bacillus anthracis as a BW agent, and the prolifera- tion of BW programs worldwide with Anthrax as the core biological agent. Anthrax: THE BIOLOGICAL WEAPON OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY During the first half of the twentieth century, there have been a number of attempts at using Anthrax as a weapon.
Available until 3 Mar |Learn moreTerrorism and WMDs
Awareness and Response, Second Edition
- John Pichtel(Author)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
Incineration of Anthrax-infected carcasses may pose practical problems; if incomplete burning occurs, spores may be released downwind in smoke and particulate emissions. Animals introduced into an environment that had previously been infected should be vaccinated. Animal products from livestock living in Anthrax-affected areas should not be consumed or handled by untrained and/or unvaccinated personnel (UTDallas, 2015). Recent Developments Anthrax toxins are being studied to learn how to block their production and ultimately their action. Researchers have discovered the three-dimensional molecular structure of the Anthrax protective antigen protein that is used to enter host cells; they have subsequently been able to block the attachment of protective antigen in laboratory experiments, thereby inhibiting Anthrax toxin activity (NIH, 2007). In other studies, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases has synthesized a molecule that interferes with Anthrax toxin in cell culture and in rodents. The molecule blocks the pore formed by Anthrax protective antigen, which prevents lethal factor and edema factor toxins from entering cells (NIH, 2007). In 2015, The U.S. FDA approved Anthrasil, Anthrax Immune Globulin Intravenous, to treat patients with inhalation Anthrax in combination with appropriate antibacterial drugs. Anthrasil is manufactured from the plasma of individuals vaccinated against Anthrax. The plasma contains antibodies that neutralize toxins produced by the Anthrax bacteria (U.S. FDA, 2015). Biowarfare and Terrorism Anthrax spores were weaponized by the U.S. military in the 1950s and 1960s before the U.S. offensive program was terminated. Other countries have been or are currently sus-pected of weaponizing this agent. The Anthrax bacterium is relatively easy to cultivate. The formation of spores facilitates both storage and weaponization of the organism.
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