Zoonosis

11 Key excerpts on "Zoonosis"

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  Neglected Zoonoses: Concern for One Health

  • Rahman, H(Authors)
  • 2018(Publication Date)
  • Biotech

    (Publisher)

  Chapter 9 Zoonoses: An Overview Ashok Kumar and H. Rahman Introduction Since time immemorial, man has been dependent upon the animals to partially cater to his needs of nutrition, protection and recreation. The benefits accrued to the mankind through its association with animals are unequivocal. However, sharing of the ecological niches by the human beings and animals has also resulted in the sharing of an array of disease problems. The term Zoonosis is used to describe such diseases. The term 'zoonoses' which comprises of two words- 'zoon' means animals, and 'noses' means diseases. The word 'Zoonosis' (plural: zoonoses) was introduced by Rudolf Virchow in 1880 to include collectively the diseases shared in nature by man and animals. Later, the World Health Organization defines Zoonoses as Those diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man. Many zoonoses like brucellosis, tuberculosis, plague, rabies, etc. have caused great economic losses and heavy morbidity and mortality, and many emerging diseases like hanta virus and avian influenza have great potential to cause epidemics and even pandemics. During the last three decades »73 per cent of all newly discovered infectious diseases, i.e., emerging infections, have been categorized to be zoonotic in nature. As a whole, the emergence of zoonotic pathogens is a complex process involving inputs from several aspects of human and animal activities and their relationship with ecosystem. The factors precipitating disease emergence can be identified in virtually all cases. These include ecological, environmental, or demographic factors that place animals or human at increased contact with a previously unfamiliar microbe or its natural host or promote dissemination. The increasing human population and its expansion into the new habitats including wildlife is one of the important causes for emergence of new diseases.

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  Zoonoses

  The ties that bind humans to animals

  • Stéphane Biacchesi, Christophe Chevalier, Marie Galloux, Christelle Langevin, Ronan Le Goffic, Michel Brémont, Gwenaël Vourc’h, François Moutou, Serge Morand, Elsa Jourdain(Authors)
  • 2022(Publication Date)
  • Éditions Quae

    (Publisher)

  As human beings, we have complex relationships with animals. These connections differ across the world, as they are shaped by cultural practices, customs, traditions, and religious beliefs. Some animals are the objects of our affection. Others terrify us. In either case, animals are front and centre among our emotional connections to the living world. They improve our daily lives. Some provide us with joy, labour, or nourishment, while others simply share natural spaces with us. Each one of these interactions represents an opportunity for pathogen exchange. Certain pathogens are part of our evolutionary heritage because they were present in our great ape ancestors. The advent of domestication created an opportunity for frequent, routine contacts between humans and farm animals, thus favouring Zoonosis transmission. Human and farm animal populations grew in tandem, reducing the relative representation of wildlife species among terrestrial vertebrates. At present, the ways in which we humans exploit the environment have increased how frequently we interact with wildlife. Simultaneously, intensive animal farming has transformed the conditions under which these interactions take place, with young and genetically homogenous animals crowded together at high densities.

  In this book, we explore what is currently known about zoonoses, drawing upon multifarious examples. We seek to answer certain key questions: What are zoonoses? How are they transmitted? How do we learn to safely live with them? Are zoonoses on the rise? This book is an invitation to learn more about these diseases so that we can better protect ourselves and others. An essential part of this work is transforming how we interact with animals and the living world in general.

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  Defining Zoonoses

  The term “Zoonosis” comes from the Greek roots ζῷον (zôon ), meaning animal, and νόσος (nosos ), meaning disease. As far back as the classical era, people observed that certain diseases seemed to pass from animals to humans, rabies serving as one notable example. However, it was not until the 19th century that the concepts of microbes, contagion, infection, and transmission were elucidated in their modern form, paving the way for the fields of microbiology and epidemiology. German physician and researcher Rudolph Virchow (1821-1902) coined the term Zoonosis after noting parallels in a parasitic disease found in both pigs and humans: trichinellosis (see Trichinellosis ). The modern definition of a Zoonosis is an infectious or parasitic disease whose microbial or parasitic agents are naturally transmitted between humans and other animals. In this book, we discuss disease transmission between humans and other vertebrates, mainly mammals and birds, using the terminology defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO). We also wish to specify that, in the context of this book, we use the phrase “naturally transmitted” to mean the opposite of “experimentally transmitted” and/or “rarely transmitted”.

  Zoonoses have been around for as long as humans have. The direct ancestors of the genus Homo , and more generally all the members of the various hominid lineages, were exposed to and/or infected by pathogens coming from other animal groups. Humans were interacting with animals long before Homo sapiens gained self-awareness. Anthropology has taught us that, earlier on in our evolutionary history, the boundaries between humans and other animals did not exist or were highly dynamic. They were shaped by context, region, and time period. In the mid-2010s, studies were carried out in northern Australia that explored how Hendra virus was viewed by Indigenous populations with traditional lifestyles (e.g., resembling those prior to European colonisation). The findings illustrate the great disparity in the attitudes of Australia’s Indigenous versus settler populations towards this viral disease. The reservoirs for Hendra virus are flying foxes (genus Pteropus

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  Veterinary Public Health: New Trends

  • Rahman, H(Authors)
  • 2021(Publication Date)
  • Biotech

    (Publisher)

  IMPACT OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES ON HUMAN HEALTH AND ECONOMY H. Rahman, L.R. Chatlod and Papri Pal The word Zoonosis (Pleural: Zoonoses) was introduced by Rudolf Virchow in 1880 to include collectively the diseases shared in nature by man and animals. Later WHO in 1959 defined that Zoonoses are “those diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man.” Zoonoses include only those infections where there is either a proof or a strong circumstantial evidence for transmission between animals and man. Zoonoses (zoonotic diseases) are a heterogeneous group of diseases with a variety of causative agents. More than 300 such diseases of diverse etiology have been recognized. EMERGING ZOONOSES Contrary to “lingering” zoonoses, public awareness of “emerging” zoonoses is very high. WHO/FAO/OIE joint consultation on emerging zoonotic diseases held in Geneva, 3-5 May 2004, defined an emerging Zoonosis as “a Zoonosis that is newly recognized or newly evolved, or that has occurred previously but shows an increase in incidence or expansion in geographical, host or vector range”. Emerging zoonotic diseases have potentially serious human health and economic impacts and their current upwards trends are likely to continue. Examples are avian influenza, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis (BSE) and the Nipah virus. Some of the “lingering” zoonoses are re-emerging in some regions, although they seem to attract less public awareness. Brucellosis, dog rabies and parasitic diseases such as cysticercosis/taeniasis and echinococcosis/hydatidosis are few examples. This ebook is exclusively for this university only. Cannot be resold/distributed. CLASSIFICATION With the advanced laboratory techniques and increased awareness among medical and veterinary scientists, ecologists and biologists, more than 300 zoonoses of diverse etiology are now recognized.

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  Microbial Food Contamination

  • Charles L. Wilson Ph.D.(Author)
  • 2007(Publication Date)
  • CRC Press

    (Publisher)

  The definition of zoonotic diseases adopted by the WHO is ‘‘those diseases and infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man’’ (WHO 1997). This pro-posed definition captures the essence of the meaning of Zoonosis and empha-sizes that the transmission of these diseases is under natural circumstances. 471 The word Zoonosis is derived from the Greek roots zoo , or animal, and nosos , or illness, thus, literally, diseases from animals (i.e., not exclusively infectious diseases). Zoonosis may be classified in various ways, including the direction of infection (human to other animals, or vice versa), types of agent (parasitic, viral, bacterial), or according to the role of vectors or external environment in their transmission cycles (e.g., direct, cyclo-, meta-, and saproZoonosis). Figure 17.1 illustrates the classification of zoonotic diseases based on the maintenance cycle of the etiologic agent. Four classes have been proposed and these include direct Zoonosis, cycloZoonosis, metaZoonosis, and sapro-Zoonosis. The term direct Zoonosis is used to describe diseases where the etiologic agent is perpetuated in nature by a single vertebrate host, examples of such diseases include brucellosis and rabies (Figure 17.1a). CycloZoonosis is a term used to describe diseases that require more than one vertebrate host for their transmission, e.g., taeniases (Figure 17.1b). There are some etiologic agents that require both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts, e.g., trypanosomiasis (Figure 17.1c), and they are described as metaZoonosis. The last category of these four types of diseases is saprozoonotic diseases (Figure 17.4d). These are diseases where the etiologic agent survives and multiplies on inanimate reservoirs as well as vertebrates, e.g., cryptospor-idiosis and listeriosis. Another classification scheme for these zoonotic diseases is based on the direction of the transmission of the etiologic agents between susceptible hosts.

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  Emerging Viruses in Human Populations

  • Edward Tabor(Author)
  • 2006(Publication Date)
  • Elsevier Science

    (Publisher)

  Today, the term zoonoses is commonly used for infectious diseases that are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man ( WHO/FAO, 1959 ). The total number of zoonoses is unknown, but according to Taylor et al. (2001) , who in 2001 cataloged 1415 known human pathogens, including 217 viruses and prions, 538 bacteria and rickettsia, 307 fungi, 66 protozoa, and 287 helminths, 61% were zoonotic. With time, more and more human pathogens are found to be of animal origin. Interestingly, wild animals seem to be involved in the epidemiology of most zoonoses and serve as significant res-ervoirs for transmission of zoonotic agents to domestic animals and man. Many infectious diseases have emerged in the human population in recent years. According to Lederberg et al. (1992) , emerging infectious diseases include those whose incidences in humans have increased within the past two decades or threaten to increase in the near future. Emerging infections also include those that have newly appeared in a population or that have been known for some time, but are rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. Most emerging infectious diseases in humans are zoonoses. The WHO/FAO/ OIE joint consultation on emerging zoonotic diseases held in Geneva in 2004 (whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2004/WHO_CDS_CPE_ZFK_2004.9.pdf) defined an emerging Zoonosis as ‘‘a Zoonosis that is newly recognized or newly evolved, or that has occurred previously but shows an increase in incidence or expansion in geographical, host or vector range’’. At this consultation it was stated that emerg-ing zoonotic diseases have potentially serious human health and economic impacts and that their current increasing incidences are likely to continue. Avian influenza was used as an example; events since that time have shown that these predictions were unfortunately correct.

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  Essentials of Disease in Wild Animals

  • Gary A. Wobeser(Author)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  zoonotic , as in zoonotic disease. There is no equivalent word that describes diseases that are shared between wild and domestic animals. A huge number of diseases are shared between humans and animals, and many infections that generally are thought of as uniquely human diseases developed from diseases of animals.

  It has been proposed that Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the cause of human tuberculosis, is evolutionarily young (Sreevatsan et al. 1997) and may have evolved from M. bovis at approximately the time cattle were domesticated about 15,000 years ago (Stead et al. 1995; Small and Selcer 2000). However, based on analysis of the genome of Mycobacterium spp., Brosch et al. (2002) concluded that M. tuberculosis did not evolve from M. bovis and that both developed from a common ancestor. The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) that cause AIDS are of more recent animal origin, with HIV-1 having evolved from a chimpanzee variant of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and HIV-2 having evolved from a SIV of the sooty mangabey monkey. Bogerd et al. (2004) suggested that “the biological barrier preventing the entry of additional SIV into the human population as zoonotic infections is potentially quite fragile.” As indicated in the quotation at the beginning of this chapter, one can anticipate that many new diseases will emerge as wild animals, domestic animals, and humans come into contact in new ways. Details on individual diseases are beyond the scope of this book, but there are excellent reference texts dealing with zoonoses (Beran and Steele 1994; Palmer et al. 1998) and with the zoonotic diseases that occur in wild animals (Williams and Barker 2001; Samuel et al. 2001).

  The line between humans and animals is unambiguous, although the type and intensity of contact between the two groups are constantly shifting. In contrast, the separation between wild and domestic animals is vague, uncertain, and shifting continuously. Wild animals move in and out of captivity, and domestic animals become feral. For example, in many areas there are both farmed and free-living cervids with wild animals being captured and entering the domestic pool and escapees from behind a fence becoming wild animals. Even with our traditional domestic animals, free-living animals of the same species may cohabit an area (e.g., both the fat white domestic Pekin duck and the wild mallard are Anas platyrhynchos

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  The Emergence of Zoonotic Diseases: Understanding the Impact on Animal and Human Health - Workshop Summary

  • (Author)
  • 2002(Publication Date)
  • The National Academies Press

    (Publisher)

  10 2 The Importance of Zoonotic Diseases PATHOGENESIS AND VIRULENCE OF ZOONOTIC INFECTIONS IN HUMANS Robert E. Shope, M.D. Professor of Pathology, Center for Tropical Diseases University of Texas Medical Branch The transmission of an infectious agent from an animal to a human being initiates a series of events that constitute the pathogenesis of the infection. Pathogenesis is the entry, primary replication, spread to target organs, and establishment of infection in the target organs. The process by which a pathogen replicates itself in the human host depends on cell-spe- cific and organ-specific receptors, cell and tissue injury, and host immunity and other defense factors. The final outcome is either termination of infec- tion, persistence and latency of infection, transmission to another host, or some combination of these. This series of events is not specific for zoonotic infections, except possibly that zoonotic agents are rarely sexually transmit- ted. The zoonoses, however, illustrate some of the more interesting and complex patterns that have evolved in nature. Virulence can be defined as “the degree of pathogenicity of an infec- tious agent, indicated by case fatality rates and/or its ability to invade and damage tissues of the host.” In many bacterial agents, virulence is mediated through a number of factors coded for by the genetic molecule DNA in a The Emergence of Zoonotic Diseases: Understanding the Impact on Animal and Human Health - Workshop Summary Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. THE IMPORTANCE OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES 11 chromosome, a bacteriophage, a plasmid, or some other unit. These viru- lence factors include: Adherence. Some bacteria have specialized structures called pili that attach to the intestinal epithelium of the host and permit replication before the infecting cells are swept away. Invasion. These factors permit bacteria to gain entry into the cell, where they replicate in a protected environment.

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  Encyclopedia of Epidemiology

  • Sarah Boslaugh, Sarah E. Boslaugh(Authors)
  • 2007(Publication Date)
  • SAGE Publications, Inc

    (Publisher)

  Z Z OONOTIC D ISEASE Infectious or communicable diseases of humans can be divided into those that are communicable only between humans and those that are communicable to humans by nonhuman vertebrate animals (those with backbones such as mammals, birds, reptiles, amphi-bians, and fish, referred to in this entry simply as ‘‘animals’’). The latter diseases are called zoonoses or zoonotic diseases. Because of the large number of domestic and wild animals that can serve as a source of zoonotic diseases, and the numerous means of transmission including vectors, zoonotic diseases are often difficult to control. Public health veterinarians have a critical role in zoonotic disease surveillance, prevention, and control, but risk reduction increas-ingly requires application of multidisciplinary teams and a unified concept of medicine across human and animal species lines. Zoonotic Disease Classification All classes of disease agents cause zoonotic disease. These include bacteria (e.g., listeriosis), chlamydia (e.g., psittacosis), rickettsia (e.g., Rocky Mountain spotted fever), viruses (e.g., Hendra), parasites (e.g., leishmaniasis), and fungi (e.g., histoplasmosis). Zoonoses can be subdivided into those transmitted from animals to humans (zooanthroponoses) or from humans to animals (anthropozoonoses, also called reverse zoonoses). Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been spread from humans to cattle and elephants, and methacillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been transmitted from people to horses and then back to people. Diseases that are rarely transmitted between animals and humans are sometimes included, such as foot-and-mouth disease in cattle. Zoonoses transmitted through direct contact are orthozoonoses (e.g., rabies). Cyclozoonoses (e.g., echi-nococcosis) require more than one vertebrate host for development. Metazoonoses are transmitted by an infected invertebrate vector (e.g., scrub typhus from mite bites).

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  Waterborne Zoonoses

  Identification, Causes and Control

  • J. A. Contruvo, A. Dufour, G. Rees, Jamie Bartram, R. Carr, D. O. Cliver, G. F. Craun, Ronald Fayer, V. P. J. Gannon(Authors)
  • 2013(Publication Date)
  • IWA Publishing

    (Publisher)

  In order to better understand these classifications of “water related” and “zoonotic,” it is useful to start with the definitions of these terms and examine the infections that are commonly accepted to fall within these definitions. We can then propose criteria for determining what is a water-related zoonotic disease and test these criteria on newly recognized diseases to see how well they work. 3.2 ZOONOSES Zoonoses have been defined as “those diseases and infections (the agents of) which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and man” (WHO/FAO 1959). Examples of zoonotic infections have been recognized among all the major groups of infectious agents: prions, viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. Some of these agents may infect only one type of animal and humans. Others may infect several types of animals as well as humans. Wilson (2001) explained that there are two types of zoonoses: direct and indirect. In direct zoonoses, an infection is transmitted from animals to humans by direct contact with the animal via a bite, ingestion of animal tissue, or skin contact with an animal (Figure 3.1a). Examples of direct zoonoses are rabies, trichinellosis, and tularaemia. Indirect zoonoses (Figure 3.1b) involve transmission of the infectious agent from animals to humans via a vector or vehicle. Examples of indirect zoonoses include cryptosporidiosis, the plague ( Yersinia pestis ), ehrlichiosis ( Ehrlichia chaffeensis ), West Nile virus, and leptospirosis ( Leptospira interrogans ). Some infections, such as tularaemia, can be transmitted both directly via animal contact and indirectly via water ingestion or inhalation of infectious aerosols. For some zoonoses — avian influenza, Hendra and Nipah viruses, human immunodeficiency viruses HIV-1 and HIV-2, and Ebola virus — it is not clear how the agent was transmitted from animals to humans (Mahy and Brown 2000).

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  Understanding New, Resurgent, and Resistant Diseases

  How Man and Globalization Create and Spread Illness

  • Kurt Link M.D.(Author)
  • 2007(Publication Date)
  • Praeger

    (Publisher)

  PART II Zoonosis  CHAPTER 6 Zoonosis  Zoonosis—Wildlife Emerging health problems are not only a human concern. Protecting our wildlife has become a major issue. Birds can carry infections far afield; ani- mals, squeezed out of their normal ecological position, become reservoirs of potentially lethal pathogens. Wildlife will be exposed to the same global warming (to which many plants and animals have already begun to adapt), as well as the toxins in our environment, and the ongoing hunting down of an ever-decreasing prey. 1 Epizootics Epizootics (animal epidemics) may be quite obvious or may go unseen in some little known ecological niche. In some instances the epizootic brings man in more contact with the animal—such as the farmer and his sick cow, or a hunter with the pelt of a marauding wolf. An animal epidemic may kill off cattle, poultry, or other food staples, as well as cost billions of dollars to ‘‘cull’’ millions of affected animals. The United Kingdom had to slaughter countless cattle to control the bovine spongiform encephalopathy epidemic. Rinderpest and hoof-and-mouth disease infected millions of animals that had to be slaughtered. An anthrax epizootic occurred in Zimbabwe in 1978– 1980; it was the largest ever recorded. This epizootic involved 10,000 human cases and 182 human deaths. The epizootic occurred during the civil war years and may have been deliberately spread. 2 The last epizootic in the United States was in North Dakota in the year 2000. A human case of cutane- ous (skin) anthrax led to the discovery of four dead horses on a farm. By the end of the epizootic 157 animals died on 31 farms. In 1994, a mysterious virus wiped out one-third of the previously thriving lion population in the Serengeti National Park in Africa. 3 The illness ran its course and the population recovered. Research accomplished after the epizo- otic showed that the mysterious virus was none other than canine distemper virus (CDV).

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  Zoonoses

  Recognition, Control, and Prevention

  • Martin E. Hugh-Jones, William T. Hubbert, Harry V. Hagstad(Authors)
  • 2008(Publication Date)
  • Wiley-Blackwell

    (Publisher)

  References 1. Abrutyn, E., and G. H. Talbot: Surveillance strategies: A primer. Infect Conbvl, 8:459-464, 1987. 2. Acha, P. N., and B. Szyfres: Zoonoses and Communicable Diseases Common to Man and Animals, 2nd ed. Sci. Publ. No. 503. Washington, D.C. Pan American Health Organization, 1987. 3. Acuff, G. R., R. A. Albanese, C. A. Batt, et al.: Implications of biotechnology, risk assessment, and communications for the safety of foods of animal origin. J 2 / PRINCIPLES OF ZOONOSES RECOGNITION 45 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Am Vet Med Assoc, 1W1714-1721,1991. Aghababian, R. V., and J. Teuscher: Infectious diseases following major disasters. Ann Emeq Med, 21:362-367,1992. Alter, M. J., A. Mares, S. C. Hadler, et al.: The effect of underreporting on the apparent incidence and epidemiology of acute viral hepatitis. Am J Epidcmiol, Anon.: Intemational Zoo-Sanitary Code (Interntiowl Animal Health Code), 5th ed. Paris, Office International des Ephties, 1986. Audy, J. R.: The localization of disease with special reference to the zoonoses. Trans Roy Soc Trop Med e, 52:308-328,1958. Audy, J. R.: Medical ecology in relation to geography. Brit J Clin Pracf, 12102- 110,1958. Bartlett, A. V., M. E. Paz de Bocaletti, and M. A. Bocaletti: Neonatal and early postneonatal morbidity and mortality in a rural Guatemalan community: the importance of infectious diseases and their management. Pediab. Infecf Dis J, Beck, A. M.: The Ecology of Stray Dogs. Baltimore, York Press, 1973. Benenson, A. S. (ed.): Conlrol of Communicable Diseases in Man, 14th ed. Washington, D.C., American Public Health Association, 1985. Bryan, F. L (chrmn.): Ptvcedms fo Investigate Fmdbome Illness, 4th ed. rev. Ames, IA, International Association of Milk, Food and Environmental Sanitarians, Inc., 1988. Bryan, F. L: Risks of practices, procedures and processes that lead to outbreaks of foodborne diseases.

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