Biological Sciences
Spirulina
Spirulina is a type of blue-green algae that is rich in nutrients and often consumed as a dietary supplement. It is known for its high protein content, as well as being a good source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Spirulina has been studied for its potential health benefits, including its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
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eBook - PDF- Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka, Maria Isabel Queiroz, Eduardo Jacob-Lopes, Leila Queiroz Zepka, Maria Isabel Queiroz(Authors)
- 2018(Publication Date)
- IntechOpen(Publisher)
Spirulina used in human nutrition is the dried commercial biomass of two cyanobac-teria species traditionally called Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima , which belong to the genus Arthrospira spp. Taxonomically, these organisms are classified in kingdom Bacteria; phylum Cyanobacteria; order Oscillatoriales; family Phormidiaceae [ 2]. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Spirulina is filamentous, helical, photosynthetic cyanobacteria naturally inhabiting alka -line brackish and saline waters in tropical and subtropical regions. Biochemical analysis has revealed its exceptional nutritive properties, so it is referred in the literature as “super food” or “food of the future” [2]. Spirulina is one of the richest natural sources of proteins and essential amino acids, as well as an excellent source of vitamins (primarily A, K, and vitamin B complex), macro- and micro-elements (calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron, iodine, selenium, chro-mium, zinc, and manganese), essential fatty acids, including γ-linoleic acid (GLA), glycolipids, lipopolysaccharides, and sulfolipids [3]. Spirulina is especially rich in a variety of pigments, such as chlorophylls, β-carotene, xanthophylls, and phycobilins (phycobiliproteins) ( Table 1 ). A huge number of in vitro and in vivo studies, published in the last few decades, have revealed potentially beneficial effects of Spirulina on human health. Health benefits mainly arise from the antioxidant effect of algae as a whole, or from its individual ingredients, such as phyco -biliproteins (Section 2).
eBook - PDF- S. K. Jain, A. A. Khan, M. K. Rai(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- CRC Press(Publisher)
CHAPTER Spirulina Biotechnology Hiren Doshi 1 , Arabinda Ray 1* and I.L. Kothari 2 INTRODUCTION Spirulina is a blue–green filamentous spiral-shaped marine alga, widely found in ocean and sea waters. Botanists classify it as microalga belonging to Cyanophyceae; but according to bacteriologists it is a bacterium due to its prokaryotic structure. The two most important species of Spirulina are alga S. maxima and S. platensis . Because of its high nutrition content characterized by more than 70% amino acid content, together with essential minerals, vitamins, a whole spectrum of natural mixed carotene, fatty acids S. platensis is gaining more attention. Spirulina is an inexpensive attractive alternative food source for poor countries very often devastated by natural calamities. It is a traditional food for some Mexican and African people (http://www.javeriana.edu.co/ universitas_scientiarum/vol8n1/bernal.htm) Spirulina has another unique application. It is a very efficient biosorbent, Spirulina sp., was found to contain detectable levels of mercury and lead (Slotton et al. 1989) when grown under the contaminated condition, implying that it can take up toxic metals from the environment. Spirulina can thus be cultivated in wastewater to improve water quality. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION About 70% of protein is present in Spirulina , making it an excellent source of protein (Switzer 1980). It has essential amino acids, such as leucine 7 1 Department of Chemistry, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar-388 120, Gujarat, India, E-mails: [email protected], [email protected] 2 Department of Bioscience, Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidyanagar-388 120, Gujarat, India, E-mail: [email protected] * Corresponding author 210 Geomicrobiology (~11%), valine (~7.5%) and isoleucine (~7.0%). A high provitamine-A concentration is also present in Spirulina (Belay 1997).
eBook - ePubAlgal Genetic Resources
Cosmeceuticals, Nutraceuticals, and Pharmaceuticals from Algae
- Jeyabalan Sangeetha, Devarajan Thangadurai(Authors)
- 2022(Publication Date)
- Apple Academic Press(Publisher)
Also, Food and Drug Administration accepted Spirulina as generally regarded as safe (GRAS). Their fascinating nutraceutical properties and balanced nutritional composition can be benefited in the form of nutraceuticals, functional foods, and dietary supplements (Morsy et al., 2014). This chapter discusses the various aspects of the Spirulina to be used as nutraceuticals and its application in various food products. 4.2 FEATURES OF Spirulina Spirulina is blue-green planktonic algae found in alkaline water made up of delicate cell walls formed from complex protein and sugars. It contains amino acids, vitamin B 12, phycobilisomes (PBS), and phytopigments like carotene and xanthophyll (Estrada et al., 2001). It is a filamentous non-nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium but neglects any distinction for the hetero-cyst, akinete or hormogonium seen in any other filamentous nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria (Fujisawa et al., 2010). It is generally characterized as normal helical coiling’s or spirals. During laboratory cultivation or commercial development, genetic modification (GM) and morphological transformation (linear to spiral or vice versa) has been reported (Ma and Gao, 2009). It grows naturally in warm climates, in the alkaline water bodies (Usharani et al., 2012). This has the multicellular tubular trichomes that were structured over the total length. The non-heterocyst blue-green filaments, comprises of vegetative fungal cells initiates binary fission in a single plane that exhibits identifiable transverse walls. Filaments are swirling and exhibit whirling motility. Apical cells might be narrowly circular or pointing that can be capitate and calyptrate. The shorter cylindrical cells were present around the width of the trichomes. The pores are present in the concave area of the coil in hemi circular rows
eBook - ePubHandbook of Marine Microalgae
Biotechnology Advances
- Se-Kwon Kim(Author)
- 2015(Publication Date)
- Academic Press(Publisher)
Chapter 19Nutritional and Pharmaceutical Properties of Microalgal Spirulina
Thanh-Sang Vo1 , Dai-Hung Ngo1 , and Se-Kwon Kim1 , 21 Marine Bioprocess Research Center, Pukyong National University, Busan, Republic of Korea2 Specialized Graduate School Science and Technology Convergence, Pukyong National University, Department of Marine-Bio Convergence Science, Busan, Republic of KoreaAbstract
Spirulina is an unbranched, helicoidal, and filamentous blue-green algae or cyanobacterium that has been found in various aquatic environments. Although it has been a common dietary substance around the world since ancient times, its nutritional values and health benefits have not been scientifically proven. Recently, several lines of studies have provided insight into its nutritive and health beneficial effects. Hence, Spirulina’ s unusually high protein content and its richness in vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and essential fatty acids are now well recognized. Notably, it has been found to possess various bioactivities, including antioxidant, anti-infammatory, antiallergic, anticancer, antiobesity, antidiabetic, antiviral, antibacterial, and antihepatopathic activities. This chapter presents a brief overview of the general characteristics of Spirulina , as well as its biochemical components and pharmaceutical properties.Keywords
Antioxidant; Bioactivities; Nutritive; Pharmaceuticals; Spirulina1. General Characteristics of Spirulina
1.1. Morphology
Spirulina is symbiotic, multicellular, and filamentous blue-green microalgae with symbiotic bacteria that fix nitrogen from air. It is recognizable by the arrangement of the multicellular cylindrical trichomes in an open left-hand helix along the entire length. The blue-green nonheterocystous filaments, composed of vegetative cells that undergo binary fission in a single plane, show easily visible transverse cross-walls. The presence of gas-filled vacuoles in the cells, together with the helical shape of the filaments, results in floating mats. The trichomes have a length of 50–500 μm and a width of 3–4 μm. The trichomes, enveloped by a thin sheath, show more or less slightly pronounced constrictions at cross-walls. Although the helical shape of the trichome is considered to be a stable and constant property maintained in culture, there may be considerable variation in the degree of helicity between different strains of the same species and within the same strain. The body surface of Spirulina is smooth and without covering, so it easily digestible by simple enzymatic systems. Its main photosynthetic pigment is phycocyanin, which is blue in color. It also contains chlorophyll a and carotenoids. Some contain the pigment phycoythrin, giving a red or pink color. Spirulina are photosynthetic and therefore autotrophic (Capelli and Cysewski, 2010 ; Habib et al., 2008 ; Ali and Saleh, 2002
eBook - ePubNutraceuticals
Efficacy, Safety and Toxicity
- Ramesh C Gupta, Ramesh C. Gupta(Authors)
- 2016(Publication Date)
- Academic Press(Publisher)
Chapter 42Spirulina
Dan Wan, Qinghua Wu and Kamil KučaAbstract
Spirulina is a microscopic and filamentous cyanobacterium that has a long history of use as a safe functional food. It is commercially produced in large outdoor ponds under controlled conditions. Here we have summarized the available information concerning the human clinical potential and applications of Spirulina , as well as clinical data related to the safety and side effects of Spirulina . Potential health benefits of Spirulina are mainly due to its chemical composition, which includes proteins, carbohydrates, essential amino acids, minerals (especially iron), essential fatty acids, vitamins, and pigments. In this respect, three major bioactive components of Spirulina , the protein phycocyanin, sulfated polysaccharides, and γ-linoleic acid (GLA) seem to play significant roles in imparting improved human body functions. Furthermore, experimental evidence supports the immunomodulation and antiviral effects of Spirulina supplementation. Moreover, the available clinical evidence does not indicate a serious risk to health or other public health concerns due to Spirulina .Keywords
Spirulina ; Arthrospira ; health aspects; safety; nutraceutical; functional foodIntroduction
Spirulina , also named Arthrospira , are multicellular and filamentous cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). It has gained considerable popularity in the healthy food industry and is considered a food supplement for humans, livestock, poultry, and aquaculture diets. Spirulina grows in water and can be harvested and processed easily. It has very high macronutrient and micronutrient contents, such as proteins, amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins. It has long been used as a dietary supplement for centuries by people living close to the alkaline lakes where it is naturally found, for instance, those living adjacent to Lake Chad in the Kanem region and Lake Texcoco in Mexico (Ciferri and Tiboni, 1985 ; Sotiroudis and Sotiroudis, 2013
eBook - PDF- Das, Mihir Kumar(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Daya Publishing House(Publisher)
Chapter 4 Spirulina: The Superfood and Medicine Preeti Das*, A.K. Mishra and Mihir K. Das P.G. Department of Botany, G.M. College (Autonomous), Sambalpur – 768 004, Orissa, India ABSTRACT Spirulina are the earliest forms of life, nearly 3.5 billion years old and are the source of all life in the oceans. It provided an evolutionary bridge between bacteria and green plants. Spirulina occurs naturally in tropical and subtropical lakes with high pH and high concentration of carbonate and bicarbonate. Spirulina is not a medicine, but when used as a good source of supplementary food, one can avoid nutrient deficiencies causing illness. Spirulina is totally digestible and is the richest food source available to us. It is also absorbed very quickly after being consumed. Because of its richness, this tiny plant is capable of providing food for humans with almost no wastage and satisfies hunger very quickly when eaten in only small amounts. The topic of Spirulina is currently quite hot for its therapeutic applications. Medical research has already shown that Spirulina can provide benefits to our body. This health food has wide range of nutrients, vitamins and proteins in its composition. Hundreds of scientific studies reveal that Spirulina and its unique phytonutrients and extracts, boost the immune system and improve health in many ways. Keywords : Spirulina, Food, Nutrients, Medicine. 1. Introduction ‘Let your food be your medicine and your medicine your food’-(Hippocrates, 460-370 BC) Spirulina is a single-celled, filamentous, spiral-shaped blue green This ebook is exclusively for this university only. Cannot be resold/distributed. microalgae grown in tropical salt lakes. This microalgae is discovered by Dr. Clement of France in 1962. Dr. Clement found that the Ganimou people living around Lake Chades in Africa had stronger bodies than other civilized people at that time, despite poor living conditions and few resources.
eBook - PDF- Pandey, Vidya Dhar, Rajan Kumar Gupta(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Daya Publishing House(Publisher)
The high contents of protein, vitamin B 12 , iron, b – carotene, iodine and g – linolenic acid make the Spirulina protein as “ naturally made” promising dietary substitute that could provide significant nutritional input to the Third World (Puniya et al., 1995). In India, the Spirulina technology has been extended even to the villages by training the rural people especially women to grow this alga in their backyards for nutrition and income This ebook is exclusively for this university only. Cannot be resold/distributed. generation. Department of Biotechnology (Govt. of India) has assisted in rehabilitating the earthquake-stricken villagers of Latur, Maharashtra by introducing the Spirulina technology as an income generating activity. In addition to that a number of different cyanobacteria, mostly Nostoc strains have traditionally been used as food or food supplements, however, these strains are not extensively exploited (Jassby et al., 1988). Spirulina is a wholesome food supplement rich in proteins, vitamins, amino acids, beta-carotene, linolenic acid, minerals, and other nutrients. Spirulina biomass is available mainly as health food in the form of powder, soup, noodles, candies, appetizers, vegetable pate, low calorie bread, bread spread, health drinks and multivitamin tablets. Spirulina is claimed as a non-toxic, nutritious food, with some corrective properties against viral attacks, anemia, cancer, hepatotoxicity, cardiovascular diseases, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, immunodeficiency, and inflammatory processes and as a source of the yellow coloration of egg yolk when consumed by hens. Several of these activities are attributed to either Spirulina itself or to some of its components including fatty acids omega-3 or omega-6, beta-carotene, alpha-tocopherol, phycocyanin, phenol compounds and sulphated polysachharide, Ca-spirulan (Ca-SP). Spirulina is a food that has extremely long shelf life.
eBook - PDFSuperfood and Functional Food
The Development of Superfoods and Their Roles as Medicine
- Naofumi Shiomi, Viduranga Waisundara, Naofumi Shiomi, Viduranga Waisundara(Authors)
- 2017(Publication Date)
- IntechOpen(Publisher)
Chapter 1 A Prominent Superfood: Spirulina platensis Nilay Seyidoglu, Sevda Inan and Cenk Aydin Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/66118 Abstract Our planet’s resources have been declining, as you know. The life qualities of humans have also changed a little because of their economy, nutrition, sports, and family life. Therefore, more alternative resources are being sought after by humans. Also, in the food supply for animals, scientists have been researching different and alternative supplements for growth performance, immunity, reproduction, and metabolism. Spirulina platensis and its contents have been linked to a nutritional component in both human and animal health and welfare. Growth and immunomodulation properties of this supplement have been widely studied in animals and humans, recently. Nowadays, nutritional specifics of S. platensis are a main focus for researchers. S. platensis is a single-cell protein due to its rich components, such as protein, essential amino acids, fatty acids, antioxidant pigments, carotenoids, beta-carotene, and phycocyanin. Today, researchers study the nutritional quality and investigate the effects of S. platensis on growth, immunity, antioxidant, antitoxicologic, anticancerogenic, cholesterol and glucose metabolism, and fertility. For these reasons, S. platensis may be acceptable as an alternative and/or superfood for the next generation. So, we review this information regarding S. platensis using historical background, literature reviews, qualitative studies, and microscopic appearances in this chapter. Keywords: super food, Spirulina platensis , microalgae 1. Introduction Population growth, depletion of food resources, and balanced diets require the usage of new food sources. For many years, there have been antibiotics, hormones, or drugs used for improving health and immunity, and to fight against disease.
- Vyas, Deepak(Authors)
- 2021(Publication Date)
- Daya Publishing House(Publisher)
The bioavailability of total carotenes and in particular β-carotene from Spirulina was found to be comparable to the values reported for carotenes from other plant sources like leafy vegetables and carrots (Annapurna et al., 1991). Spirulina is also a good source of vitamin A and hence it can be used as a source of vitamin A in the diet (Annapurna et al., 1991). Spirulina is the most extensively researched food microalga documented in numerous books, journals, articles and periodicals. Phycobiliproteins This ebook is exclusively for this university only. Cannot be resold/distributed. Cyanobacteria in general possess all the known phycobiliproteins: phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, phycoerythrocyanin and allo-phycocyanin. Among them, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin are commercially valuable. ‘Linablue’ a phycocyanin product from Dainippan ink and Chemicals Inc, Japan is an odourless, non-toxic blue powder and used for colouring candy, ice cream, dairy products and soft drinks (Cohen 1986). Phycocyanin is also obtained in a water insoluble form from Spirulina and used in eye shadow, eyeliner and lipstick preparations (Dainippon Patent 1980). The blue or red chromophores are isolated by enzymatic or acid hydrolysis of the protein to yield more concentrated pigment which is used in cosmetics (Dainippon Patent 1981). Phycoerythrin from Spirulina and other cyanobacteria is used as a food colour for products like icecream, yoghurt and it could also be used in cosmetics. C-phycocyanin is a major biliprotein of S. platensis , the cyanobacterium having antioxidant (Upasani, et al., 2001), anti-arthritic, and anti-inflammatory properties (Ramirez et al., 2002). Phycocyanin acts as a hepatoprotective agent and as a hydroxyl radical scavenger (Madhava et al., 2000). This pigment also inhibits oxidative damage in DNA and hence may be used as a therapeutic agent (Bhat and Madyastha 2001). However, the mechanism of its action is not yet clearly understood.
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